Lifesaving and Survival

A vessel on an international voyage subject to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, (SOLAS) must meet the requirements in subchapter W of this chapter for passenger vessels in the same service, instead of the requirements of this part.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 62 FR 51357, Sept. 30, 1997]

(a) Cartridge. Each pistol-projected parachute red flare distress signal shall be legibly marked as follows:

Pistol-Projected Parachute Red Flare Distress Signal

20,000 candela—30 seconds burning time

use only when aircraft or vessel is sighted directions—Fire upward from signal pistol

Service Life Expiration Date (date to be inserted by manufacturer) (Month and year manufactured) Lot No.______

Manufactured by (Name and address of manufacturer)

U.S. COAST GUARD APPROVAL NO.______.

(b) Marking of expiration date. The expiration date must be not more than 42 months from the date of manufacture.

(c) Other marking. (1) On each pistol-projected parachute red flare distress signal there shall be die-stamped, in figures not less than 3mm ( 1/8 in.) high, on the cartridge, numbers indicating the month and year of manufacture, thus: “6-54” indicating June 1954.

(2) The pyrotechnic candle shall be legibly marked with the month and year of manufacture.

(3) In addition to any other marking placed on the smallest packing carton or box containing cartridges, each carton or box shall be plainly and permanently marked to show the service life expiration date, the date of manufacture, and the lot number.

(4) The largest carton or box in which the manufacturer ships signals must be marked with the following or equivalent words: “Keep under cover in a dry place.”

Note:

Compliance with the labeling requirements of this section does not relieve the manufacturer of the responsibility of complying with the label requirements of 15 U.S.C. 1263, the Federal Hazardous Substances Act.

An existing vessel must comply with the requirements of this part except as otherwise specified by this section.

(a) A vessel that meets the following requirements shall be considered in compliance with the subdivision requirements contained in §§ 180.202, 180.204, 180.205, 180.206, 180.207 and 180.208:

(1) The vessel was constructed before March 11, 2001.

(2) The vessel is of not more than 19.8 meters (65 feet) in length and carries not more than 49 passengers;

(3) The vessel meets the standards for collision bulkheads in § 179.310 of this chapter; and

(4) The vessel meets the standards for one-compartment subdivision in §§ 179.220 and 179.320 of this chapter, at least in way of the engine room and lazarette.

(b) Each inflatable liferaft, inflatable buoyant apparatus, life float, and buoyant apparatus on the vessel on March 11, 1996, may be used to meet the requirements of this part for these survival craft as long as the survival craft is continued in use on the vessel, and is in good and serviceable condition.

(c) An existing vessel need not comply with § 180.78(a)(4).

(d) An existing vessel must comply with § 180.210 or may comply with the regulations for rescue boats that were in effect for the vessel prior to March 11, 1996.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996; 61 FR 24464, May 15, 1996, as amended by USCG-2012-0832, 77 FR 59789, Oct. 1, 2012]

(a) General. Each hand-held rocket-propelled parachute red flare distress signal shall be legibly marked or labeled as follows:

(Company brand or style designation) Hand-Held Rocket-Propelled Parachute Red Flare Distress Signal—20,000 candela—30 seconds burning time. Use Only When Aircraft or Vessel Is Sighted. Directions—(In numbered paragraphs, simply worded instructions for firing the device). Service Life Expiration Date (date to be inserted by manufacturer) (Month and year manufactured) (Lot No. ____) Manufactured by (Name and address of manufacturer) U.S. Coast Guard Approval No. ____.

(b) Marking of expiration date. The expiration date must be not more than 42 months from the date of manufacture.

(c) Other marking. (1) On each hand-held rocket propelled parachute red flare distress signal there shall be die-stamped in figures not less than 3 mm ( 1/8 in.) high, on the signal, numbers indicating the month and year of manufacture, thus: “6-54” indicating June, 1954.

(2) The pyrotechnic candle shall be legibly marked with the month and year of manufacture.

(3) In addition to any other marking place on the smallest packing carton or box containing signals, each carton or box shall be plainly and permanently marked to show the service life expiration date, date of manufacture, and lot number.

(4) The largest carton or box in which the manufacturer ships signals must be marked with the following or equivalent words: “Keep under cover in a dry place.”

Note:

Compliance with the labeling requirements of this section does not relieve the manufacturer of the responsibility of complying with the label requirements of 15 U.S.C. 1263, the Federal Hazardous Substances Act.

(a) Each item of lifesaving equipment carried on board a vessel but not required under this part, must be approved by the Commandant.

(b) The cognizant Officer in Charge, Marine Inspection (OCMI) may require a vessel to carry specialized or additional lifesaving equipment if:

(1) The OCMI determines the conditions of the voyage render the requirements of this part inadequate; or

(2) The vessel is operated in Arctic, Antarctic, or other severe conditions not covered under this part.

Each vessel that operates on the high seas, or that operates beyond three miles from the coastline of the Great Lakes, must have on board a FCC Type Accepted Category 1, 406 MHz EPIRB, installed to automatically float free and activate.

(a) Oceans, coastwise, limited coastwise, and Great Lakes routes. A vessel on an oceans, coastwise, limited coastwise, or Great Lakes route must carry—

(1) Six hand red flare distress signals approved in accordance with § 160.021 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant, including, but not limited to, approval series 160.121; and

(2) Six hand orange smoke distress signals approved in accordance with § 160.037 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant.

(b) Lakes, bays, and sounds, and rivers routes. A vessel on a lakes, bays, and sounds, or rivers route must carry:

(1) Three hand red flare distress signals approved in accordance with § 160.021 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant; and

(2) Three hand orange smoke distress signals approved in accordance with § 160.037 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant.

(c) Substitutions. (1) A rocket parachute flare approved in accordance with § 160.036 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant may be substituted for any of the hand red flare distress signals required under paragraph (a) or (b) of this section.

(2) One of the following may be substituted for any of the hand orange smoke distress signals required under paragraph (a) or (b) of this section:

(i) A rocket parachute flare approved in accordance with § 160.036 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant.

(ii) A hand red flare distress signal approved in accordance with § 160.021 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant, including, but not limited to, approval series 160.121.

(iii) A floating orange smoke distress signal approved in accordance with § 160.022 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant, including, but not limited to, approval series 160.122.

(d) Exemption for vessels on short runs. A vessel operating on short runs limited to approximately 30 minutes away from the dock is not required to carry distress flares and smoke signals under this section.

(e) Stowage. Each flare carried to meet this section must be stowed in one of the following:

(1) A portable watertight container marked as required by § 185.614 of this chapter, carried at the operating station; or

(2) A pyrotechnic locker secured above the freeboard deck, away from heat, in the vicinity of the operating station.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996; 61 FR 20557, May 7, 1996, as amended at 62 FR 51357, Sept. 30, 1997; USCG-2015-0867, 80 FR 62470, Oct. 16, 2015]

(a) A vessel must have one or more ring life buoys as follows:

(1) A vessel of not more than 7.9 meters (26 feet) in length must carry a minimum of one life buoy of not less than 510 millimeters (20 inches) in diameter;

(2) A vessel of more than 7.9 meters (26 feet) in length, but not more than 19.8 meters (65 feet), must carry a minimum of one life buoy of not less than 610 millimeters (24 inches) in diameter; and

(3) A vessel of more than 19.8 meters (65 feet) in length must carry a minimum of three life buoys of not less than 610 millimeters (24 inches) in diameter.

(b) Each ring life buoy on a vessel must:

(1) Be approved in accordance with § 160.050 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant, including, but not limited to, approval series 160.150;

(2) Be readily accessible;

(3) Be stowed in a way that it can be rapidly cast loose;

(4) Not be permanently secured in any way; and

(5) If on a vessel on an oceans or coastwise route, be orange in color.

(c) At least one ring life buoy must be fitted with a lifeline. If more than one ring life buoy is carried, at least one must not have a lifeline attached. Each lifeline on a ring life buoy must:

(1) Be buoyant;

(2) Be of at least 18.3 meters (60 feet) in length;

(3) Be non-kinking;

(4) Have a diameter of at least 7.9 millimeters ( 5/16 inch);

(5) Have a breaking strength of at least 5 kilonewtons (1,124 pounds); and

(6) Be of a dark color if synthetic, or of a type certified to be resistant to deterioration from ultraviolet light.

(d) A vessel must carry one floating waterlight, unless it is limited to daytime operation, in which case no floating waterlight is required.

(1) Each floating waterlight must be approved in accordance with § 161.010 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant, including, but not limited to, approval series 160.110.

(2) Each ring life buoy with a floating waterlight must have a lanyard of at least 910 millimeters (3 feet) in length, but not more than 1,830 millimeters (6 feet), securing the waterlight around the body of the ring life buoy.

(3) Each floating waterlight installed after March 11, 1997, on a vessel carrying only one ring buoy, must be attached to the lanyard with a corrosion-resistant clip. The clip must have a strength of at least 22.7 kilograms (50 pounds), and allow the waterlight to be quickly disconnected from the ring life buoy.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996; 61 FR 20557, May 7, 1996, as amended by CGD 97-057, 62 FR 51050, Sept. 30, 1997; 62 FR 51357, Sept. 30, 1997; USCG-2015-0867, 80 FR 62470, Oct. 16, 2015]

(a) An adult life jacket must be provided for each person carried on board a vessel.

(b) In addition, a number of child size life jackets equal to at least 10% of the number of persons permitted on board must be provided, or such greater number as necessary to provide a life jacket for each person being carried that is smaller than the lower size limit of the adult life jackets provided to meet this section, except that:

(1) Child-size life jackets are not required if the vessel's Certificate of Inspection is endorsed for the carriage of adults only; or

(2) When all “extended size” life preservers (those with a lower size limit for persons of 1,195 millimeters (47 inches) in height or weighing 20.4 kilograms (45 pounds)) are carried on board, a minimum of only 5% additional child size devices need be carried.

(c) Each lifejacket must be approved under approval series in subparts 160.002, 160.005, 160.055, 160.115, 160.176, or 160.255 in part 160 of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant. An inflatable lifejacket approved under approval series in subpart 160.255 of part 160 of this chapter must include a full back-up inflation chamber.

(d) Each life jacket carried on board the vessel must be marked in accordance with § 185.604 of this chapter.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996; 61 FR 24464, May 15, 1996, as amended by CGD 97-057, 62 FR 51050, Sept. 30, 1997; 62 FR 51357, Sept. 30, 1997; USCG-2015-0867, 80 FR 62470, Oct. 16, 2015; USCG-2022-0120, 89 FR 97401, Dec. 6, 2024]

(a) Equipment carried under this section is not acceptable in lieu of any portion of the required number of approved lifejackets and must not be substituted for the approved lifejackets required to be worn during drills and emergencies.

(b) Wearable marine buoyant devices approved in accordance with § 160.064, 160.076, 160.264, or 160.276 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant, may be carried as additional equipment.

(c) Buoyant work vests approved in accordance with § 160.053 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant, may be carried as additional equipment for use of persons working near or over the water.

(d) A commercial hybrid approved under former approval series 160.077 prior to January 6, 2025 may be carried as additional equipment for use by persons working near or over the water if it is in good and serviceable condition, used in accordance with the conditions marked on the PFD and in the owner's manual, and of the same or similar design and has the same method of operation as each other hybrid PFD carried on board.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended by USCG-2022-0120, 89 FR 97401, Dec. 6, 2024]

(a) Each life jacket carried on a vessel on oceans, coastwise, or Great Lakes route, must have a life jacket light approved in accordance with § 161.012 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant, including, but not limited to, approval series 160.112. Each life jacket light must be securely attached to the front shoulder area of the life jacket.

(b) Notwithstanding the requirements of paragraph (a) of this section, life jacket lights are not required for life jackets on:

(1) Ferries; and

(2) Vessels with Certificates of Inspection endorsed only for routes that do not extend more than 20 miles from a harbor of safe refuge.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended by USCG-2015-0867, 80 FR 62470, Oct. 16, 2015]

(a) General. Unless otherwise stated in this section, life jackets must be stored in convenient places distributed throughout accommodation spaces.

(1) Each stowage container for life jackets must not be capable of being locked. If practicable, the container must be designed to allow the life jackets to float free.

(2) Each life jacket kept in a stowage container must be readily available.

(3) Each life jacket stowed overhead must be supported in a manner that allows quick release for distribution.

(4) If life jackets are stowed more than 2,130 millimeters (7 feet) above the deck, a means for quick release must be provided and must be capable of operation by a person standing on the deck.

(5) Each child size life jacket must be stowed in a location that is appropriately marked and separated from adult life jackets so the child size life jackets are not mistaken for adult life jackets.

(b) Additional personal flotation devices. The stowage locations of the personal flotation devices carried in addition to life jackets under § 180.72, must be separate from the life jackets, and such as not to be easily confused with that of the life jackets.

(a) Each survival craft must be:

(1) Secured to the vessel by a painter with a float-free link permanently attached to the vessel except that a float-free link is not required if the vessel operates only on waters not as deep as the length of the painter;

(2) Stowed so that when the vessel sinks the survival craft floats free and, if inflatable, inflates automatically;

(3) Stowed in a position that is readily accessible to crew members for launching, or else provided with a remotely operated device that releases the survival craft into launching position or into the water;

(4) Stowed in a way that permits manual release from its securing arrangements;

(5) Ready for immediate use so that crew members can carry out preparations for embarkation and launching in less than 5 minutes;

(6) Provided with means to prevent shifting;

(7) Stowed in a way that neither the survival craft nor its stowage arrangements will interfere with the embarkation and operation of any other survival craft at any other launching station;

(8) Stowed in a way that any protective covers will not interfere with launching and embarkation;

(9) Fully equipped as required under this part; and

(10) Stowed, as far as practicable, in a position sheltered from breaking seas and protected from damage by fire.

(b) A hydrostatic release unit when used in a float-free arrangement must be approved under approval series 160.062 or 160.162 or other standard specified by the Commandant.

(c) A mechanical, manually operated device to assist in launching a survival craft must be provided if:

(1) The survival craft weights more than 90.7 kilograms (200 pounds); and

(2) The survival craft requires lifting more than 300 vertical millimeters (one vertical foot) to be launched.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended at 62 FR 51357, Sept. 30, 1997; 62 FR 64306, Dec. 5, 1997]

(a) In addition to meeting § 180.130, each life float and buoyant apparatus must be stowed as required under this section,

(b) The float-free link required by § 180.130(a)(1) must be:

(1) Certified to meet § 160.073 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant;

(2) Of proper strength for the size of the life float or buoyant apparatus as indicated on its identification tag; and

(3) Secured to the painter at one end and to the vessel on the other end.

(c) The means used to attach the float-free link to the vessel must:

(1) Have a breaking strength of at least the breaking strength of the painter;

(2) If synthetic, be of a dark color or of a type certified to be resistant to deterioration from ultraviolet light; and

(3) If metal, be corrosion resistant.

(d) If the life float or buoyant apparatus does not have a painter attachment fitting, a means for attaching the painter must be provided by a wire or line that:

(1) Encircles the body of the device;

(2) Will not slip off;

(3) Has a breaking strength that is at least the strength of the painter; and

(4) If synthetic, is of a dark color or is of a type certified to be resistant to deterioration from ultraviolet light.

(e) If the vessel carries more than one life float or buoyant apparatus in a group with each group secured by a single painter:

(1) The combined weight of each group of life floats and buoyant apparatus must not exceed 181 kilograms (400 pounds);

(2) Each group of life floats and buoyant apparatus is considered a single survival craft for the purposes of § 180.130(c);

(3) Each life float and buoyant apparatus must be individually attached to the painter by a line meeting § 180.175(f)(3) (ii), (iii), and (iv) and long enough that each life float or buoyant apparatus can float without contacting any other life float or buoyant apparatus in the group; and

(4) The strength of the float-free link under paragraph (b)(2) of this section and the strength of the painter under § 180.175(f)(3)(ii) must be determined by the combined capacity of the group of life floats and buoyant apparatus.

(f) Life floats and buoyant apparatus must not be stowed in tiers more than 1,220 millimeters (4 feet) high. When stowed in tiers, the separate units must be kept apart by spacers.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996; 61 FR 20557, May 7, 1996, as amended by USCG-2013-0671, 78 FR 60164, Sept. 30, 2013]

(a) A launching appliance described in paragraph (c) of this section, or a marine evacuation system approved under approval series 160.175, must be provided for each inflatable liferaft and inflatable buoyant apparatus when either—

(1) The embarkation station for the survival craft is on a deck more than 4.5 meters (15 feet) above the waterline; or

(2) The inflatable liferaft and inflatable buoyant apparatus is boarded prior to being placed in the water.

(b) An embarkation ladder, approved in accordance with § 160.017 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant, must be at each embarkation station if the distance from the deck on which an embarkation station is located to the vessel's lightest operating waterline is more than 3,050 millimeters (10 feet).

(c) Each launching appliance for a davit-launched liferaft must include an automatic disengaging apparatus approved under 46 CFR part 160, subpart 160.170 and be either—

(1) A davit approved under 46 CFR part 160, subpart 160.132 for use with a liferaft, with a winch approved under 46 CFR part 160, subpart 160.115 for use with a liferaft; or

(2) A launching appliance approved on or before November 10, 2011 under approval series 160.163.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended by CGD 97-057, 62 FR 51050, Sept. 30, 1997; 62 FR 51357, Sept. 30, 1997; USCG-2010-0048, 76 FR 63015, Oct. 11, 2011; 76 FR 70062, Nov. 10, 2011]

(a) General. Each item of survival craft equipment must be of good quality, and efficient for the purpose it is intended to serve. Unless otherwise stated in this section, each item of equipment carried, whether required under this section or not, must be secured by lashings, stored in lockers, compartments, brackets, or have equivalent mounting or storage arrangements that do not:

(1) Reduce survival craft capacity;

(2) Reduce space available to the occupants;

(3) Interfere with launching, recovery, or rescue operations; or

(4) Adversely affect seaworthiness of the survival craft.

(b) Inflatable liferafts. Each inflatable liferaft must have one of the following equipment packs as shown by the markings on its container:

(1) Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) B Pack; or

(2) SOLAS A Pack.

(c) Inflatable buoyant apparatus. Each inflatable buoyant apparatus must be equipped in accordance with the manufacturer's approved servicing manual.

(d) Life floats. Each life float must be fitted with a lifeline, pendants, two paddles, a painter, and a light.

(e) Buoyant apparatus. Each buoyant apparatus must be fitted with a lifeline, pendants, a painter, and a light.

(f) Equipment specifications for life floats and buoyant apparatus. The equipment required for lifefloats and buoyant apparatus must meet the following specifications:

(1) Lifeline and pendants. The lifeline and pendants must be as furnished by the manufacturer with the approved life float or buoyant apparatus. Replacement lifelines and pendants must meet the requirements in Subpart 160.010 of this chapter.

(2) Paddle. Each paddle must be of at least 1,220 millimeters (4 feet) in length, lashed to the life float to which it belongs and buoyant.

(3) Painter. The painter must:

(i) Be of at least 30.5 meters (100 feet) in length, but not less than 3 times the distance between the deck where the life float or buoyant apparatus it serves is stowed and the lowest load waterline of the vessel;

(ii) Have a breaking strength of at least 680 kilograms (1,500 pounds), except that if the capacity of the life float or buoyant apparatus is 50 persons or more, the breaking strength must be at least 1,360 kilograms (3,000 pounds);

(iii) Be of a dark color if synthetic, or of a type certified to be resistant to deterioration from ultraviolet light; and

(iv) Be stowed in such a way that it runs out freely when the life float or buoyant apparatus floats away from a sinking vessel.

(4) Light. The light must be a floating waterlight approved under approval series 161.010 or other standard specified by the Commandant. The floating waterlight must be attached around the body of the life float or buoyant apparatus by a 10 mm (3/8 inch) lanyard, resistant to deterioration from ultraviolet light, and at least 5.5 meters (18 feet) in length.

(g) Other survival craft. If survival craft other than inflatable liferafts, life floats, inflatable buoyant apparatus, and buoyant apparatus are carried on the vessel, such as lifeboats or rigid liferafts, they must be installed, arranged, and equipped as required under subchapter H (Passenger Vessels) of this chapter for passenger vessels on the same route.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended at 62 FR 51357, Sept. 30, 1997]

(a) Each survival craft required on a vessel by this part must meet one of the following:

(1) For an inflatable liferaft—Approved under approval series 160.151 or other standard specified by the Commandant, with the applicable equipment pack, as determined by the cognizant OCMI. Each inflatable liferaft required on a vessel by this part must have a capacity of 6 persons or more. Inflatable liferafts may be substituted for inflatable buoyant apparatus or life floats required under this section;

(2) For a life float—Approved under approval series 160.027 or other standard specified by the Commandant. Buoyant apparatus may be used to meet requirements for life floats if the buoyant apparatus was installed on board the vessel on or before March 11, 1996, and if the buoyant apparatus remains in good and serviceable condition;

(3) For an inflatable buoyant apparatus—Approved under approval series 160.010 or other standard specified by the Commandant. Inflatable buoyant apparatus may be substituted for life floats required under this section.

(4) For a buoyant apparatus—Approved under approval series 160.010 or other standard specified by the Commandant. An existing buoyant apparatus may not be used to satisfy the requirements for life floats on existing vessels wishing to upgrade the total number of passengers carried on an oceans route.

(b) If the vessel carries a small boat or boats, the capacity of these boats may be counted toward life float capacity required by this part. Such boats must meet the requirements for safe loading and flotation in 33 CFR part 183, and must meet the stowage, launching, and equipment requirements in this part for the survival craft they replace.

(c) A summary of survival craft requirements is provided in Table 180.200(c).

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended at 62 FR 51357, Sept. 30, 1997; USCG-2012-0832, 77 FR 59789, Oct. 1, 2012]

(a) Each vessel certificated to operate on an oceans route in cold water must either:

(1) Be provided with inflatable buoyant apparatus of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 100% of the total number of persons permitted on board; or

(2) Meet either the standards for collision bulkheads in § 179.310 in this chapter or § 171.085 in subchapter S of this chapter, and the standards for subdivision in §§ 179.220 and 179.320 of this chapter, or the standards for subdivision and damaged stability in §§ 171.070 through 171.073 and 171.080 in subchapter S of this chapter, as appropriate, and be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 100% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(b) Each vessel certificated to operate on an oceans route in warm water must either:

(1) Be provided with inflatable buoyant apparatus of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 67% of the total number of persons permitted on board; or

(2) Be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 100% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(a) Except as allowed by paragraph (c) of this section, each vessel constructed of wood certificated to operate on a coastwise route in cold water must either:

(1) Be provided with inflatable buoyant apparatus of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 67% of the total number of persons permitted on board; or

(2) Meet either the standards for collision bulkheads in § 179.310 of this chapter or § 171.085 in subchapter S of this chapter and the standards for subdivision in §§ 179.220 and 179.320 of this chapter, or the standards for subdivision and damaged stability in §§ 171.070 through 171.073 and 171.080 in subchapter S of this chapter, as appropriate, and be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 100% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(b) Each vessel constructed of a material other than wood certificated to operate on a coastwise route in cold water must be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 100% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(c) Except as allowed by paragraph (d) of this section, each vessel certificated to operate on a coastwise route in warm water must be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 100% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(d) Each vessel certificated to operate on a coastwise route within three miles of land must either:

(1) Be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 100% of the total number of persons permitted on board; or

(2) Meet either the standards for collision bulkheads in § 179.310 of this subchapter or § 171.085 in subchapter S of this chapter, and the standards for subdivision in §§ 179.220 and 179.320 of this chapter, or the standards for subdivision and damaged stability in §§ 171.070 through 171.073 and 171.080 in subchapter S of this chapter, as appropriate, and be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 50% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(3) Have on board a FCC Type Accepted Category 1 406 MHz EPIRB, installed to automatically float free and activate, and be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 50% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996; 61 FR 20557, May 7, 1996]

(a) Except as allowed by paragraph (d) of this section, each vessel constructed of wood certificated to operate on a limited coastwise route in cold water must either:

(1) Be provided with inflatable buoyant apparatus of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 67% of the total number of persons permitted on board; or

(2) Meet either the standards for collision bulkheads in § 179.310 of this chapter or § 171.085 in subchapter S of this chapter, and the standards for subdivision in §§ 179.220 and 179.320 of this chapter, or the standards for subdivision and damaged stability in §§ 171.070 through 171.073 and 171.080 in subchapter S of this chapter, as appropriate, and be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 100% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(b) Except as allowed by paragraph (d) of this section, each vessel constructed of a material other than wood certificated to operate on a limited coastwise route in cold water must be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 100% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(c) Except as allowed by paragraph (e) of this section, each vessel certificated to operate on a limited coastwise route in warm water must be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 50% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(d) Each vessel certificated to operate on a limited coastwise route within three miles of land in cold water must be provided with the survival craft required by § 180.204(d).

(e) Each vessel certificated to operate on a limited coastwise route within three miles of land in warm water must either:

(1) Be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 50% of the total number of persons permitted on board; or

(2) Meet either the standards for collision bulkheads in § 179.310 of this chapter or § 171.085 in subchapter S of this chapter, and the standards for subdivision in §§ 179.220 and 179.320 of this chapter, or the standards for subdivision and damaged stability in §§ 171.070 through 171.073 and 171.080 in subchapter S of this chapter, as appropriate, and not be required to carry survival craft; or

(3) Have on board a FCC Type Accepted Category 1 406 MHz EPIRB, installed to automatically float free and activate, and not be required to carry survival craft.

(a) Except as allowed by paragraph (b) of this section, each vessel certificated to operate on a Great Lakes route must be provided with the survival craft required by § 180.205 (a) through (e), as appropriate.

(b) Each vessel certificated to operate on a Great Lakes route within one mile of land is not required to carry survival craft if the OCMI determines that it is safe to do so, taking into consideration the vessel's scope of operation, hazards of the route, and availability of assistance.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended at 62 FR 51357, Sept. 30, 1997]

(a) Except as allowed by paragraphs (d), (e) and (f) of this section, each vessel constructed of wood certificated to operate on a lakes, bays, and sounds route in cold water must either:

(1) Be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 100% of the total number of persons permitted on board; or

(2) Meet either the standards for collision bulkheads in § 179.310 of this chapter or § 171.085 in subchapter S of this chapter, and the standards for subdivision in §§ 179.220 and 179.320 of this chapter, or the standards for subdivision and damaged stability in §§ 171.070 through 171.073 and 171.080 in subchapter S of this chapter, as appropriate, and be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 50% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(b) Except as allowed by paragraphs (e) and (f) of this section, each vessel constructed of a material other than wood certificated to operate on a lakes, bays, and sounds route in cold water must be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 50% of the total number of persons permitted on board.

(c) A vessel certificated to operate on a lakes, bays, and sounds route in warm water is not required to carry survival craft.

(d) A vessel certificated to operate on lakes, bays, and sounds route within one mile of land is not required to carry survival craft.

(e) For a vessel certificated to operate on a lakes, bays, and sounds route in shallow water where the vessel cannot sink deep enough to submerge the topmost passenger deck or where survivors can wade ashore, the cognizant OCMI may waive a requirement for life floats, if the OCMI determines that it is safe to do so, taking into consideration the vessel's scope of operation, hazards of the route, and availability of assistance.

(f) Each vessel operating with a set schedule on a specific route that does not take it more than 20 nautical miles from a harbor of safe refuge, and that maintains a 15 minute radio communications schedule with an operations base, or participates in a Vessel Traffic Service (VTS), may be granted a reduction in the survival craft requirements of this section if the cognizant OCMI is satisfied that a sufficient level of safety exists.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996; 61 FR 24464, May 15, 1996, as amended by CGD 97-057, 62 FR 51050, Sept. 30, 1997; USCG-2014-0688, 79 FR 58288, Sept. 29, 2014]

(a) Except as allowed by paragraphs (c), (d) and (e) of this section, each vessel certificated to operate on a rivers route in cold water must either:

(1) Be provided with life floats of an aggregate capacity that will accommodate at least 50% of the total number of persons permitted on board; or

(2) Meet either the standards for collision bulkheads in § 179.310 of this chapter or § 171.085 in subchapter S of this chapter, and the standards for subdivision in §§ 179.220 and 179.320 of this chapter, or the standards for subdivision and damaged stability in §§ 171.070 through 171.073 and 171.080 in subchapter S of this chapter, as appropriate, and not be required to carry survival craft.

(b) A vessel certificated to operate on a rivers route in warm water is not required to carry survival craft.

(c) A vessel certificated to operate on a rivers route within one mile of land is not required to carry survival craft.

(d) For a vessel certificated to operate on a rivers route in shallow water where the vessel cannot sink deep enough to submerge the topmost passenger deck or where survivors can wade ashore, the cognizant OCMI may waive a requirement for life floats, if the OCMI determines that it is safe to do so, taking into consideration the vessel's scope of operation, hazards of the route, and availability of assistance.

(e) Each vessel operating with a set schedule on a specific route that maintains a 15 minute radio communications schedule with an operations base, or participates in a Vessel Traffic Service (VTS), may be granted a reduction in the survival craft requirement of this section if the cognizant OCMI is satisfied that a sufficient level of safety exists.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended by CGD 97-057, 62 FR 51050, Sept. 30, 1997; USCG-2014-0688, 79 FR 58288, Sept. 29, 2014]

(a) A vessel of more than 19.8 meters (65 feet) in length must carry at least one rescue boat unless the cognizant OCMI determines that:

(1) The vessel is sufficiently maneuverable, arranged, and equipped to allow the crew to recover a helpless person from the water;

(2) Recovery of a helpless person can be observed from the operating station; and

(3) The vessel does not regularly engage in operations that restrict its maneuverability.

(b) A vessel of not more than 19.8 meters (65 feet) in length is not required to carry a rescue boat unless:

(1) The vessel carries passengers on an open or partially enclosed deck; and

(2) The cognizant OCMI determines that the vessel is designed, arranged, or involved in operations so that the vessel itself cannot serve as an adequate rescue craft.

(c) In general, a rescue boat must be a small, lightweight boat with built-in buoyancy and capable of being readily launched and easily maneuvered. In addition, it must be of adequate proportion to permit taking an unconscious person on board without capsizing.

(d) On a vessel of more than 19.8 meters (65 feet) in length operating on protected waters, a rescue boat approved under approval series 160.056 is acceptable in meeting the intent of this section. On a vessel of more than 19.8 meters operating on exposed or partially protected waters, a rescue boat approved under approval series 160.156 is acceptable in meeting the intent of this section. On a vessel of not more than 19.8 meters (65 feet) in length, a required rescue boat must be acceptable to the cognizant OCMI.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 975, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended at 62 FR 51357, Sept. 30, 1997; 62 FR 64306, Dec. 5, 1997]

(a) Each vessel must be marked as required by part 67, subpart I, of this chapter.

(b) Paragraphs (c) through (g) of this section apply to each vessel that does not demonstrate compliance in accordance with § 178.310(c) of this chapter.

(c) Each vessel must—

(1) Have permanent draft marks at each end of the vessel; or

(2) Have permanent loading marks placed on each side of the vessel forward and aft to indicate the maximum allowable trim and amidships to indicate the maximum allowable draft.

(d) A loading mark required by paragraph (c)(2) of this section must be a horizontal line of at least 205 millimeters (8 inches) in length and 25 millimeters (1 inch) in height, with its upper edge passing through the point of maximum draft. The loading mark must be painted in a contrasting color to the sideshell paint.

(e) On a vessel that has a load line, the amidships marks required by paragraph (c)(2) of this section must be those required by the International Convention on Load Lines, 1966.

(f) In cases where draft marks are obscured due to operational constraints or by protrusions, the vessel must be fitted with a reliable draft indicating system from which the bow and stern drafts can be determined.

(g) On a vessel on which the number of passengers permitted on upper decks is limited by stability criteria, as indicated by the vessel's stability letter, the maximum number of passengers allowed on an upper deck must be indicated by a durable marking of at least 25 millimeters (1 inch) numbers and letters at the entranceway to that deck.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 62 FR 51359, Sept. 30, 1997, as amended by USCG-2007-0030, 75 FR 78092, Dec. 14, 2010]

(a) The name of a vessel must be marked or painted in clearly legible letters and numbers:

(1) On each side of the bow of each rescue boat; and

(2) On each life float and buoyant apparatus.

(b) Each life jacket, immersion suit, and ring life buoy must be marked in clearly legible block capital letters with the vessel's name. The marking is not required on a life jacket carried to meet a temporary need for additional life jackets, if the life jacket has the name of another vessel or company marked on it. For an immersion suit, the name of the person to whom the immersion suit is assigned is an acceptable alternative to the name of the vessel.

(c) The name of the vessel must be marked or painted in clearly legible letters on each Emergency Position Indicating Radiobeacon (EPIRB), except on an EPIRB in an inflatable liferaft.

(d) The number of persons capacity must be marked or painted in clearly legible letters and numbers on each side of the bow of each rescue boat.

(e) The number of persons capacity must be marked or painted in clearly legible letters and numbers on each life float and buoyant apparatus. This number must:

(1) Be the number of persons the device is equipped for; and

(2) Not be greater than the number of persons the device is approved for as shown on its nameplate.

(f) The number and identification of the items stowed inside, and their sizes, must be marked in clearly legible letters and numbers on each container for life jackets and immersion suits. Identification of the items may be in words, or the appropriate symbols in IMO Resolution A.760(18) (incorporated by reference; see 46 CFR 175.600). Letters and numbers must be at least 50 millimeters (2 inches) high. Symbols must be at least 100 mm (4 inches) square.

(g) The name of the vessel must be marked or painted in clearly legible letters on each life float paddle.

(h) Each life jacket must be marked with Type I retroreflective material approved in 46 CFR 164.018 or other standard specified by the Commandant. The arrangement of the retroreflective material applied after March 11, 1996, must be as specified by IMO Resolution A.658(16) (incorporated by reference; see 46 CFR 175.600).

(i) Each rescue boat and ring life buoy must be marked with Type II retroreflective material approved in accordance with 46 CFR 164.018 or other standard specified by the Commandant. The arrangement of the retroreflective material applied after March 11, 1996, must be as specified by IMO Resolution A.658(16).

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 1005, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended at 62 FR 51359, Sept. 30, 1997; 62 FR 64306, Dec. 5, 1997; USCG-2003-16630, 73 FR 65210, Oct. 31, 2008]

Portable watertight containers for distress flares and smoke signals shall be of a bright color, and containers shall be clearly marked in legible contrasting letters at least 12.7 millimeters (0.5 inches) high: “DISTRESS SIGNALS”.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 1005, Jan. 10, 1996; 61 FR 24465, May 15, 1996]

(a) Each launching appliance and each survival craft and rescue boat on a vessel must be in good working order and ready for immediate use before the vessel leaves port and at all times when the vessel is underway.

(b) Each deck where survival craft or rescue boats are stowed or boarded must be kept clear of obstructions that would interfere with the boarding and launching of the survival craft or rescue boat.

(a) The manufacturer's instructions for onboard maintenance of survival craft, rescue boats, and launching appliances, manufactured on or after March 11, 1996, must be onboard a vessel of more than 19.8 meters (65 feet) in length and readily available for a vessel of not more than 19.8 meters (65 feet) in length. The instructions must also be readily available at each inspection for certification and reinspection.

(b) The owner or managing operator shall make sure that maintenance is carried out in accordance with the instructions required under paragraph (a) of this section.

(c) The cognizant OCMI may accept, instead of the instructions required under paragraph (a) of this section, a shipboard planned maintenance program that includes the items listed in that paragraph.

(d) The inspection and maintenance of the equipment listed in paragraph (a) of this section shall be logged or otherwise documented for review by the Coast Guard upon request.

(a) Each fall used in a launching appliance on a vessel must be turned end for end at intervals of not more than 30 months.

(b) Each fall must be renewed when necessary due to deterioration or at intervals of not more than 5 years, whichever is earlier.

(c) Each fall must have a corrosion resistant tag with the following permanently marked on it:

(1) The date the new fall was installed; and

(2) If the fall has been turned end for end, the date it was turned.

The following tests and inspections must be carried out weekly on a vessel:

(a) Each survival craft, rescue boat, and launching appliance must be visually inspected to ensure its readiness for use;

(b) Each rescue boat engine must be run ahead and astern for not less than 3 minutes, unless the ambient temperature is below the minimum temperature required for starting the engine; and

(c) Each battery for rescue boat engine starting must be brought up to full charge at least once each week if:

(1) The battery is of a type that requires recharging; and

(2) The battery is not connected to a device that keeps it continuously charged.

Each survival craft, rescue boat, and launching appliance on a vessel must be inspected monthly, using the manufacturer's instructions to make sure it is complete and in good order.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 1005, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended by USCG-2014-0688, 79 FR 58288, Sept. 29, 2014]

(a) Each winch control apparatus of a launching appliance on a vessel, including motor controllers, emergency switches, master switches, and limit switches, must be examined once in each 3 months.

(b) The examination required by paragraph (a) of this section must include the removal of drain plugs and the opening of drain valves to make sure that enclosures are free of water.

(a) Each rescue boat must be stripped, cleaned, and thoroughly inspected, and any necessary repairs made at least once each year, including emptying and cleaning of each fuel tank, and refilling it with fresh fuel.

(b) Each davit, winch, fall and other launching appliance must be thoroughly inspected, and any necessary repairs made, at least once each year.

(c) Each item of lifesaving equipment with an expiration date must be replaced during the annual inspection and repair if the expiration date has passed.

(d) Each battery used in an item of lifesaving equipment, except inflatable survival craft equipment, must be replaced during the annual inspection if the expiration date of the battery has passed. The expiration date of the battery may be marked on the battery or the owner or managing operator may have a record of the expiration date from the manufacturer of a battery marked with a serial number.

(e) Except for a storage battery used in a rescue boat, each battery without an expiration date indicated on it or for which the owner or managing operator does not have a record of the expiration date, used in an item of lifesaving equipment, must be replaced during the annual inspection.

The master of the vessel shall ensure that:

(a) Each EPIRB, other than an EPIRB in an inflatable liferaft, must be tested monthly, using the integrated test circuit and output indicator, to determine that it is operative;

(b) The EPIRB's battery is replaced after it is used, or before the date required by FCC regulations in 47 CFR part 80, whichever comes sooner; and

(c) The EPIRB test required by paragraph (a) shall be logged or otherwise documented, as applicable.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 1005, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended by CGD 97-057, 62 FR 51050, Sept. 30, 1997]

(a) An inflatable liferaft or inflatable buoyant apparatus must be serviced at a facility specifically approved by the Commandant for the particular brand, and in accordance with servicing procedures meeting the requirements of part 160, subpart 160.151, of this chapter—

(1) No later than the month and year on its servicing sticker affixed under 46 CFR 160.151-57(n), except that servicing may be delayed until the next scheduled inspection of the vessel, provided that the delay does not exceed 5 months; and

(2) Whenever the container is damaged or the container straps or seals are broken.

(b) Each inflatable lifejacket and hybrid inflatable lifejacket or work vest must be serviced:

(1) Within 12 months of its initial packing; and

(2) Within 12 months of each subsequent servicing, except that servicing may be delayed until the next scheduled inspection of the vessel, provided that the delay does not exceed 5 months.

(c) Each inflatable life jacket must be serviced in accordance with the servicing procedure under § 160.176 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant.

(d) Each hybrid inflatable life jacket or work vest must be serviced in accordance with the servicing procedure under § 160.077 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant.

(e) Repair and maintenance of inflated rescue boats must be in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. All repairs must be made at a servicing facility approved by the Commandant, except for emergency repairs carried out on board the vessel.

Amendment history: [CGD 85-080, 61 FR 1005, Jan. 10, 1996, as amended at 62 FR 51359, Sept. 30, 1997; USCG-2001-11118, 67 FR 58542, Sept. 17, 2002]

(a) Each hydrostatic release unit, other than a disposable unit, must be serviced:

(1) Within 12 months of its manufacture and within 12 months of each subsequent servicing, except when servicing is delayed until the next scheduled inspection of the vessel, provided that the delay does not exceed 5 months; and

(2) In accordance with the repair and testing procedures under § 160.062 in subchapter Q of this chapter, or other standard specified by the Commandant.

(b) Each disposable hydrostatic release unit must be marked with an expiration date of two years after the date on which the unit is installed.

Based on interviews with a number of sea survivors, twelve characteristics were identified to help in understanding the will to survive. They are: (01) Courage (07) Purpose (02) Determination (08) Attentiveness (03) Cheerfulness (09) Confidence (04) Positiveness (10) Productiveness (05) Flexibility (11) Persistence (06) Willingness (12) Certainty

Courage is the state or quality of mind or spirit that enables you to face danger or fear with self-possession, confidence, and resolution. Courage enables us to overcome these fears that can overcome us in a survival situation. Each time we encounter danger or fear and overcome it, we strengthen our courage. It is important to realize the difference between fear and panic. Fear has a purpose. It is the mind’s tool to pool all available resources. Panic on the other hand, is an unreasonable, overwhelming, and uncontrollable fear that can be one’s worst enemy in a survival situation.

Stories about those who did not survive are usually founded on the idea that the would-be survivor did not realize they had it in them to carry on just a little further. Physically, the human body will rise to the occasion and call upon itself when needed. Many survival case histories show determination alone was the only factor in the successful return of the survivor. Determination in thinking leads to quick, decisive action as you may have to act quickly. This excerpt to one survivor’s story is evidence of determination:

The shore was about 50 yards away, but I experienced extreme difficulty in swimming due to the incoming tide. Several times, I had to turn on my back and try to float and propel myself with only my feet. It was only with extreme effort that I was able to make the shore. Upon reaching it, I was completely exhausted and in a state of partial shock, but forced myself to go on.

A strong sense of humor is instrumental in influencing the outcome of any survival situation. The ability to use humor and stay cheerful in a stressful situation will help the survivor withstand the anxieties and apprehensiveness of the situation.

Being positive helps the survivor make the best of the situation. Thoughts of failure will hinder the survivor’s ability to make sound and clear decisions. Self- fulfilling prophecies are usually manifested from negative thoughts and attitudes. Failure is inevitable when one believes there is no hope in sight. Self- discipline, adaptability, and tolerance all play parts in being positive in a survival scenario.

Athletes base their performance on being flexible as part of their overall fitness. Coast Guard personnel also maintain high levels of fitness to perform their duties. Flexibility is also a mental process. Being mentally flexible means having an open mind and the ability to act in a unique, creative and imaginative manner.

Many studies suggest we avoid psychological pain and discomfort to a greater extent than we do physical pain. In most cases, freedom from mental stress is more important than those that are physical. Willingness is the ability to make decisions and a readiness to act even when the situation seems hopeless.

Setting realistic goals (both near-term and long-term) and achieving them drives our sense of purpose. In a survival scenario, goal setting has a high survival value. Goal setting is a motivator, and as such, generates a will to live.

One of the most dangerous aspects of Coast Guard life is being unprepared. Mental preparedness, whether it be for jogging around a track, executing a patrol mission, or finding oneself in an open water survival situation is absolutely key to efficient planning and effective mental attitude.

Being properly trained is key in preparing for any situation. The skills and knowledge we obtain from training yields one important side-effect: confidence. Confidence can only be built through repetition and experience.

Keeping busy can also increase the chance of survival. Humans are social creatures, and teamed with loneliness and boredom can undermine the productive nature that is extremely important in a survival situation. Keeping the mind and body active will help to concentrate on the act of survival.

The will to survive is fundamentally based on persistence. Emotionally, the survivor needs to stay active in spite of the situation. Concentrate on those items left behind. Family, friends, and personal goals will once again be met and achieved.

The will to survive is inevitably dependent on the survivor’s ability to remain certain that they will once again return to family, friends and co-workers. Those who have survived in the past have not depended on luck or magic, they have depended on the mental skills presented above and on the equipment and procedures presented in the chapters that follow.

Human Factors play an important role in survival situations. This Section provides detail on such areas of Human Factors as: (01) Strength and Endurance, (02) Skill Level, (03) Intelligence, (04) Age and Gender.

Physical fitness standards are required to ensure crew members have sufficient strength and endurance to safely perform duties during normal and adverse conditions. These standards will also have a positive impact if a crew member is exposed to cold, wet environments. The combination of rough seas, cold temperatures and wet conditions can quickly cause the crew to become less effective. Physical fitness increases the ability to maintain a higher degree of thermoregulation between the skin and vital organs. However, high levels of body fat can increase the potential for survival in cold, wet environments. Increased body fat acts similar to extra layers of clothing in that it adds more protection to vital organs. If the crew member is able to get out of the water and onto the overturned hull, a life raft, or some other floatation device, survival will be highly dependent on the air temperature and wind velocity as well as their ability to sustain shivering. However, this state will decrease the rate of heat loss considerably due to the conductivity of air being less than that of water.

All tasks require a certain skill level. The required skill level is a function of the situational demands and the experience of the operator. Exposure to a cold, wet environment also has an effect on a person’s skill level. As core temp

erature decreases to 93°F (34°C), cognitive and motor functions become

impaired. Skilled performance can be categorized into three levels: Knowledge-based level, Rule-based level, and Skill-based level. (01) Knowledge-based level behavior is evoked when entirely new, unstructured, or complex problems are encountered. At this level, the individual uses meaningful concepts or physical properties to make decisions. Decision-making involves the identification of options or alternatives, assessing their relative attractiveness, assessing the likelihood of being realized, and integration of considerations to identify what appears to be the best option. Knowledge-based level behavior is the first level of behavior that is affected by exposure to cold, wet environments. (02) At the Rule-based level an action is selected by activating in working memory a hierarchy of rules. Such rules may have been derived empirically during previous occasions, by instruction or by conscious problem solving and planning. Information from the environment is used to select or modify these rules. Rule-based level behavior is the second level of behavior that is affected by exposure to cold, wet environments. (03) Skill-based level is when highly automated sensory-motor and cognitive performances and takes place without conscious control. This level of behavior is the final level to be affected by exposure to cold, wet environments.

Memory capacity plays an important role in open water survival situations. The rate at which we process cognitively (mental storage, retrieval, and manipulation) is not only a function of general intelligence but of individual aptitude as well. The better a survivor learns and acquires new information, the higher the probability of rescue.

Aging is widely thought to compromise body temperature defense during cold exposure. Controlled laboratory comparisons show that older men may be less able than younger men to defend core temperature during cold exposures. Heat production due to shivering may also be less in older than younger men due to the reduction of muscle mass. These aging effects begin to be apparent after about 45 years of age in men. Older women defend core temperature during cold exposure as well as, or better than younger women; this is due to body composition changes attributable to aging. Older women tend to have more body fat than younger women, which accounts for impaired, as well as improved, thermoregulatory responses to cold environments. Gender related differences in body size, body shape and composition contribute to a difference in cold tolerance between men and women, which is particularly apparent in cold water. Most women have greater body-fat content than men of comparable age. A thicker subcutaneous fat layer accounts for greater maximal tissue insulation and lower critical water temperature. Despite this difference, however, greater body-fat content may not provide women with a thermoregulatory advantage over men. When women and men of equivalent subcutaneous fat thickness are compared, the women have a greater surface area and smaller total body mass. Although insulation is equivalent, women’s total heat loss is greater due to the larger surface area. Because of their smaller body mass, body heat content is less in the women. Therefore body temperature falls more rapidly for any given thermal gradient and metabolic rate. Comparison of men and women with equivalent total body masses shows that women still seem to be at a disadvantage in the cold. In this case, women’s greater body-fat content enhances insulation, and surface area differences between genders are not as pronounced. Nevertheless, a smaller lean body mass limits a women’s capacity for heat production, compared to men of comparable total body mass. However, under colder conditions that stimulate shivering the limited thermogenic capacity of women will result in a more rapid decline in their core temperature than in men of equivalent total body mass.

Sea states can range from calm and mirror-like to driving sea spray with exceptionally high waves. Survivability depends not only on the sea state the survivor deals with, but with the sea state the rescue vessel must bear.

There are several forces that create waves at sea, the most significant of which is wind. The factors which determine the characteristics of wind waves are: wind speed, wind duration, and fetch (the distance over open water which the wind has blown). As the wind begins to blow, it creates seas, which are typically steep, choppy, and have little pattern. As the wind continues, the seas begin to become more defined. In heavy weather, observing and measuring waves is important; if you can get a general sense of the waves in which you are operating, it will allow you and your crew to operate accordingly. Strong winds usually have the same effects as strong currents on wave behavior, but because of the infinite variables of wind speed, direction, and interaction with currents, it is often difficult to predict what effect the wind will have on waves. The survivor must be more vigilant during high sea states and be ready to signal rescuers at a moment’s notice. High seas contribute to severe motion sickness; feelings of frustration and water aspiration are major concerns.

NOTE

The sea anchor, supplied with life rafts provides the most stability in any wave pattern. To ensure proper positioning of the sea anchor, the sea anchor should rest in the trough of the wave as the bow of the craft is at the crest of the wave.

Like sea state, water temperature has a significant impact on chances of survival.

One of the greatest dangers in open water survival is hypothermia. When the human body is submerged in water, heat is lost approximately 26 times faster than it is on dry land. Hypothermia is described in the First Aid Handbook.

Regardless of the type, all clothing will prevent the skin from reaching the temperature of water. Cooling rates will vary depending upon the type of protection, whether wet or dry suits. Clothing provides extra thickness between the skin and water or wind. Since heat is generally conducted away from the body by the movement of water, adding extra layers keeps the skin further away from the moving water thus reducing heat loss to varying extents. Dry suits increase protection and decrease cooling rates in both rough and calm water. Dry suits are the most effective form of protection in both rough and calm water. However, the barrier must be maintained between the water and skin for the suit to remain effective. Cooling rates are slightly higher in rough water, though this is often linked to increased heart rate and exertion in an attempt to stay afloat. If water does penetrate a dry suit, they are not rendered useless; however, the effectiveness of the suit decreases and cooling rates may increase, especially if there is water exchange. A downside is that cold water causes diuresis, or increased urinary output. It is important to remember that dry suits provide protection only to an extent and in all cases, with the exception of heated suits, will eventually lead to heat loss with the potential for hypothermic problems. Regardless of the suit worn, individuals should egress from the water as quickly as possible. A life raft or other floatation device should be used if available. Survival time will increase significantly once out of the water.

The body goes through noticeable symptoms when exposed to cold water as indicated in Table 3-2 Core Body Temperature.

Table 3-2 — Core Body Temperature

Being prepared at the onset of a survival situation can help minimize heat loss. Table 3-3 below shows the predicted survival times of the average person in 50° Fahrenheit water for various situations. Contrary to popular belief, the survivor should not swim around in efforts to keep warm. This will only increase the rate of heat loss and speed the onset of hypothermia.

Table 3-3 — Predicted Survival Time

NOTE

When worn correctly, the appropriate anti-exposure coveralls or dry suit will protect the survivor and add layers of insulation. Thermal gloves, socks, underwear and neoprene hoods all add additional layers of protection. Inflatable raft floors will provide an additional layer of insulation.

Air Temperature is a prime contributor to hypothermia. The combination of cold air with cold water is a recipe for danger.

When the wind is blowing, heat loss in the body increases exponentially due to the wind chill factor. Actions must be taken to protect against wind chill. In open water survival situations, actions taken to protect the survivor from wind effects (e.g., laying low in a raft, using neoprene hoods, etc) can greatly enhance survivability and lessen the effects of hypothermia.

Survivors should be aware of the areas of the body that are most prone to heat loss. Figure 3-4 represents those areas of the human body most prone to cooling. The majority of heat loss occurs in and around the top of the head.

NOTE

When worn correctly, the appropriate anti-exposure assemblies will protect the survivor and add layers of insulation. Insulated boots, balaclavas, watch caps, thermal gloves, socks, underwear and neoprene hoods all add additional layers of protection.

Drawing Courtesy of U.S. Navy

The weather and time of day play a major effect on any survival scenario.

Survivors in open water must realize that rescue efforts may be hampered or even postponed because of inclement weather. Survivors must be prepared for a prolonged evolution—even after the weather improves. (01) Fog. Fog is composed of tiny water droplets hanging in the atmosphere, sufficiently dense to scatter light rays and reduce visibility. Fog makes locating anything more difficult, including survivors in the open water. (02) Waves. Waves, seas, and surf can present the greatest challenges to survival skills. By understanding how waves form and behave, survivors know what to expect and how to minimize danger and increase the chance of survivability. Of the two major types of waves, the broad, rounded waves are likely to be the type of wave an open water survivor will have to deal with. Breaking waves are the most dangerous kind of wave for open water survivors. How dangerous the wave is depends on the ratio of wave

height to length, and on wave frequency. Steep sloped waves are the most dangerous.

(03) Rain, Sleet, & Snow. As with fog, precipitation can limit the sight of the survivor as well as the rescue party. Precipitation can add to other complexities such as contributing to the onset of hypothermia.

Statistically, rescues occur within a short time following a mishap. Wind and sea currents make pinpointing survivors more predictable when the mishap site is known. As time progresses, this predictability becomes more difficult. In hours of darkness, it becomes critical that the appropriate signaling devices are employed. Mentally, the first few moments an individual is in a survival situation are the most disorientating, however, the survivor must remember that rescue vessels may be nearby during this time. During hours of darkness, flares and lights are crucial when these vessels are near.

With land in sight, the survivor must make a decision whether to swim or row for land or to wait. Swimming or rowing away from a “last known position” has inherent risk and survivors from a capsized boat are often safer staying with the boat or other visable debris. Shorelines are dotted with various hazards including sharp rocks, strong current, and breaking waves. Unless land is close and conditions appear favorable, the survivor should not try to swim to shore. Considerations when making the decision to swim to shore include: (01) Distance. With no visible reference from sea, distance can be deceiving and create the illusion that land is closer than it actually is. Glare from the water surface can hinder the ability to gauge the distance to shore. (02) Water Current. Underlying current near the shoreline may hamper progress and severely rob the survivor of available energy. (03) Physical Condition. As mentioned above when dealing with water currents, the survivor’s physical condition can be the limiting factor in surviving a swim or row for shore. (04) Swimming Competency. Swimming skills must be considered in making the shoreline. A poor swimmer will expend more energy to make the shoreline than an accomplished swimmer. (05) Water Temperature. The colder the water temperature, the more energy will be required to swim the same distance in warmer waters. Also, cold water intrusion may occur and hasten hypothermia.

The most inhospitable location on our planet is the open water. The survivor must be prepared for hot, temperate, cool, or cold conditions. Survivors must be aware of the dangers of too much exposure to the sun and take preventive measures to guard against a decrease in performance.

Performance in open water can easily be affected by the heat and vibration of the boat, which can increase fatigue. This Section discusses the various sun and heat related factors that crew members may encounter during their activities. Clothing and equipment should be worn so that there is free circulation of air between clothing and the body surface. Clothing acts as a barrier that prevents evaporative cooling. Many synthetic fabrics reduce the absorption and dispersal of sweat needed to achieve optimum heat loss by evaporation. Impermeable clothing does not “breath” and thus greatly increases an individual's susceptibility to heat related illnesses. Impermeable clothing must be avoided. When using impermeable clothing, take precautions to avoid the rapid buildup of body heat. Heat illnesses may be manifested in minutes if impermeable clothing is worn. Survivors should shield themselves from the effects of sun and heat as best as possible. Sunshades should be fabricated from any means available. During the heat of the day, observe the following: The body may be cooled by getting into the water; however, check for marine life and be sure you are secured to the raft. This action will also aid in dehydration, as survivors have actually absorbed enough water to activate the kidneys after only a short time in the water. (01) Clothes can be kept wet by splashing water on them. (02) Keep physical activity to an absolute minimum in the water. (03) Use sun screen cream or similar ointment if available. (04) Wear sunglasses or improvise eye cover made from cloth or paper. Heat stroke can occur when the body’s cooling mechanism (sweating) fails to adequately cool the body. The major symptom of heat stroke is red, hot and dry skin. Mitigating the effects of heat stroke can easily be accomplished by keeping the body cooled by the measures outlined above. Keep incapacitated survivors lying down with the head elevated. Outer clothing should not be removed. Underclothes may be removed and used to cover exposed head, neck or to parts of the body which would otherwise be exposed.

NOTE

Personnel who are not accustomed to strenuous physical activity in hot and humid environments are particularly susceptible to heat injuries. Excess body weight also contributes to this susceptibility.

Continuous exposure to the sun can cause sunburn and other complications such as heat stroke, dehydration, etc. Unprotected exposed skin will suffer from premature aging and an increased chance of skin cancer. The limit to surface heating, the point at whi

ch skin becomes painful, is 109°F (43°C) and higher.

At 113°F (45°C), pain is severe, and if that temperature is maintained burns will result. Symptoms of sunburn are: redness, swelling, or blistering of the skin. Other effects of overexposure to the sun are fever, gastrointestinal symptoms, malaise, and pigment changes in the skin.

An adequate fluid intake is essential to remain healthy. Fluids are lost from the body in several ways. The most obvious loss is through the kidneys. The less obvious loss of body fluid occurs through perspiration from the skin and respiration through the lungs. As a result, an average, healthy adult requires two or three liters of fluid a day to replace these losses. Extremely warm weather significantly increases the loss of fluids. Try to stay away from liquids such as tea, alcohol, coffee, and soft drinks. These liquids speed up fluid loss. Healthy adults must satisfy their water and electrolyte requirements. When water and electrolytes are not replaced, the body experiences dehydration. Drinking alcohol and caffeine increases dehydration. At first there is thirst and general discomfort, followed by an inclination to slow physical movement, and a loss of appetite. As more water is lost, an individual becomes sleepy and experiences a rise in body temperature. By the time the body loses 5% of body weight in fluids, the individual begins to feel nauseated. When 6 to 10% of body fluids are lost, symptoms increase in this order: (01) Dry mouth, (02) Dizziness, (03) Headache, (04) Difficulty in breathing, (05) Tingling in the arms and legs, (06) Skin color turns bluish, (07) Indistinct speech, (08) Inability to walk, (09) Cramping legs and stomach.

In cold climates, the major problems range from hypothermia and frostbite, to immersion, or “Trench” foot. In cold climates, observe the following: (01) Keep as dry and warm as conditions will dictate. If possible, remove wet clothing and replace with dry clothing. (02) Clothing should be worn in loose fitting layers. (03) Don anti-exposure suit (if available). (04) Inflate raft floor or add available material for additional layers of insulation. (05) Huddle with other survivors. (06) Mild stretching and exercise improves circulation—this is key in preventing immersion foot. (07) Avoid sitting in cramped positions for long periods. Move arms, feet, and legs as much as possible. (08) Wiggle the toes inside boots. (09) Keep feet as warm and dry as possible. (10) Avoid the use of alcohol and tobacco.

The length of time a person can stay alive in cold water depends on the temperature of the water, the physical condition of the survivor, and the action taken by the survivor. Figure 2-1 illustrates the relationship between water temperature and estimated time of useful consciousness. Swimming typically reduces a person’s chance of survival due to more rapid loss of body heat.

[Lettered on the illustration: 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 32 41 50 59 68 Water Temperature - Degrees Fahrenheit]

Time is critical when forced to enter cold water. The loss of body heat is one of the greatest dangers to survival. Critical factors that increase the threat of hypothermia and other cold-water injuries include: (01) Prolonged exposure to cold-water temperatures, (02) Sea spray, (03) Air temperature, (04) Wind chill.

Several preventive measures that can be used to increase the chances for successful cold water survival include: (01) Put on as much warm clothing as possible, making sure to cover head, neck, hands and feet. (02) If the hypothermia protective clothing does not have inherent flotation, put on a PFD. (03) Before entering the water, button up clothing, turn on signal lights (only at night), locate your survival whistle and make any other preparations for rescue. (04) Avoid entering the water if possible. If it is necessary to jump into the water, cover nose and mouth with one hand and place other hand on the PFD or area between wrist and elbow.

Water survival skills that should be utilized to increase the chances for surviving cold water immersion include: (01) Immediately upon entering the water, become oriented to the surrounding area. Try to locate sinking boat, floating objects, and other survivors. (02) Try to board a life raft, overturned boat (if floating), or other floating platform as soon as possible to shorten the immersion time. Body heat is lost many times faster in the water than in the air. Since the effectiveness of the insulation worn is seriously reduced by being water soaked, it is important to be shielded from wind to avoid a wind-chill effect. Huddling close to the other occupants in the craft will also conserve body heat. (03) While afloat in the water, do not attempt to swim unless it is necessary to reach a fellow survivor or a floating object which can be grasped or climbed onto. (04) Unnecessary swimming will pump out any warm water between the body and the layers of clothing and will increase the rate of body-heat loss. Also, unnecessary movements of arms and legs send warm blood from the inner core to the outer layer of the body resulting in a rapid heat loss.

(05) The body position assumed in the water is very important in

conserving heat. Float as still as possible with legs together, elbows close to your side and arms folded across the front of the PFD. This is called the Heat Escape Lessening Position (HELP) and minimizes exposure of the body surface to the cold water. Try to keep head and neck out of the water (see Figure 3-2). However, if wearing a Type III PFD, or if the HELP position turns the body face down, bring legs together tight and arms tight to sides and head back.

(06) Another heat conserving position is to huddle closely to others in the

water making as much body contact as possible. A PFD must be worn to be able to maintain these positions in the water (see Figure 3-3).

(07) Keep a positive attitude about survival and rescue. This will extend

survival time until rescue comes. A will to live does make a difference.

Regardless of what factors or condition contributed to the capsizing of your vessel, after you safely egress, you are now faced with an open water survival situation. The ability to think clearly and proficiently can make the difference between life and death. Climbing onboard an overturned vessel will provide greater protection from the elements and hypothermia. Once onboard, your chances of being spotted by rescuers (Coast Guard or good Samaritans) greatly increases because it is a larger object that can be seen from greater distances. The majority of capsized vessels will inherently float and not sink for some time. The hull will float bow-up with the stern lying just beneath the surface of the water due to the vessel hull design and weight of the engines (see Figure 2-2). Although there is no standard procedure for climbing onto an overturned vessel, general procedures are listed below.

Use the following procedures when climbing onto an overturned boat hull: (01) Look for the easiest access point to climb aboard, this is often found towards the stern of the vessel since it will be lower in the water than the bow. (02) Use the natural design of the boats hull for hand holds eg. keel, chine, through hull drains.

CAUTION!

Be careful of sharp edges, burs, and protruding objects that may cause injury or tear PPE when climbing on board the overturned boat hull. (03) Be aware that some leverage points may be slightly below the surface, e.g. Rub rails, swim platforms, life lines. (04) Assist other survivors in climbing aboard. Once on board the overturned vessel, get as much as your body out of the water as possible to reduce your exposure to hypothermia. Apply training principles learned in the Open Water Survival Skills section and Post Capsize Procedures paragraph.

After a vessel capsizes or sinks survivors may find themselves floating, awaiting rescue. Assistance can range from minutes to hours. Rescuers (Coast Guard or good Samaritans) will arrive and begin recovering all persons from the water. There are many different types of vessels that may arrive on scene to assist. These will range from military, commercial, and/or recreationally operated vessels. Commercial and recreational vessel operators have limited experience with recovering persons from the water and their vessels are not specifically designed for rescue operations. For this reason, survivors need to become familiar with basic boat characteristics for boarding a boat from the water. Vessel characteristics for recovery consideration: (01) Swim platform or ladder, (02) Lowest point of freeboard, (03) Transom door, (04) Jacobs ladder, You may have to get creative and think about what specific characteristics are available on board the rescue vessel that can aid in your recovery. Depending on duration of exposure to the elements, survivors may have lost dexterity and have limited strength that will require additional assistance for recovery. Remember, you have the training, experience and may have to verbally communicate with the rescue vessel on the most prudent method for recovery. If capable after being rescued, commence overseeing the recovery of remaining survivors and administering first aid as necessary.

Despite the mildew inhibitor treatment that is required by manufacturers for PFDs, stowing them in moist locations will increase deterioration of the fabric. Heat, moisture, and sunlight will increase the deterioration of PFD parts.

PFDs should be stored in a climate-controlled environment in accordance with Reference (a). All PFDs should be kept away from oil, paint, and greasy substances. The Coast Guard does not consider any PFD “readily accessible” if it is kept in its original wrapper. Persons under stress may be unable to get them out promptly. Also, the wrapper can trap moisture leading to mildew and rot.

NOTE

Remember, even more important than PFD storage condition is that PFDs be readily accessible.

The Sterns Model I600, also known as a Type I (Figure 3-1), is a one-piece, PFD required for the J-Davit tender and during abandon ship operations. It is authorized for use by survivors, passengers on towed vessels, or prisoners aboard vessels. Sterns model I600 PFD provides an unconscious person the greatest chance of survival in the water. It is universally sized for adults (90 pounds and over) which provides at least 22 pounds of buoyancy. The PFD must be international orange in color.

Sterns model I600 PFD is effective for all waters, especially open, rough, or remote waters where rescue may be delayed. It is designed to turn most unconscious wearers in the water from a face-down position to a vertical or slightly backward position, allowing the wearer to maintain that position. It provides at least 22 pounds of buoyancy. This buoyancy will allow the wearer to relax and save energy while in the water, thus extending survival time.

There are three major disadvantages to this type of PFD:

(01) It is bulky and restricts movement. (02) Its buoyancy restricts the underwater swimming ability needed to escape from a capsized boat or to avoid burning oil or other hazards on the surface of the water. (03) It provides minimal protection against hypothermia.

Before entering the water, don and adjust Sterns model I600 PFD using the following procedures:

WARNING

For safety, always tuck all loose straps into your pockets, shirt, or belt. Adjust straps on injured people before they are lowered into the water.

Use the following procedures to enter the water: Follow these steps before entering the water wearing any type of PFD or combination of cold

NOTE

weather protective device (e.g., dry suit) and PFD.

If jumping into water is necessary with chemicals, oil, or burning oil on the surface, place one

NOTE

hand over mouth with palm under chin and split fingers tightly squeezing nostrils shut. Place other hand on the PFD collar to keep it in place.

The Survivors – PFD, is a Type I (Figure 3-2) PFD. A wearable device that will keep most unconscious wearers face-up in the water. It is intended for use by passengers, prisoners, and non-mission essential personnel. It comes in international orange with SOLAS reflective panels: (01) Adult (more than 90 pounds) which provides at least 22 pounds of buoyancy. (02) Child (less than 90 pounds) which provides at least 18 pounds of buoyancy.

Lightweight and easy to don. Easily stacked for storage.

There are three major disadvantages to this type of PFD: (01) It restricts movement. (02) Its buoyancy restricts the underwater swimming ability needed to escape from a capsized boat or to avoid burning oil or other hazards on the surface of the water. (03) It provides minimal protection against hypothermia.

Before entering the water, don and adjust a near-shore buoyant vest PFD using the following procedures:

Type III PFD is routinely worn aboard boats or cutter crews during underway deck evolutions when freedom of movement is required and the risk of falling over the side is minimal. It is not designed to turn an unconscious wearer to a face-up position; the design is such that conscious wearers can place themselves in a vertical or slightly backward position. It has a minimum of 15.5 pounds of buoyancy and comes in many sizes and colors. (Figure 3-3) shows one style of Type III PFD that boat crews are authorized to wear. Most approved flotation jackets (“float coats”) are also Type III devices.

Type III PFDs offer boat crew members greater comfort and freedom of movement. The Type III PFD is designed so wearers can place themselves in a face-up position in the water. Type III PFD allows greater wearing comfort and is particularly useful when water-skiing, sailing, hunting from a boat, or engaging in other water activities. The Type III PFD provides adequate flotation when wearing a full complement of law

NOTE

enforcement gear. If unable to remain afloat, jettison easily accessible equipment.

The following are some disadvantages to the Type III PFD: (01) Flotation characteristics are marginal and not suitable for wear in heavy seas, (02) Tendency to ride-up on the wearer in the water, (03) Wearer may have to tilt head back to avoid a face-down posture in the water, (04) The distribution of the flotation material reduces or eliminates the turning ability when compared to the Survivors Type I PFD.

Before entering the water, don and adjust a Type III PFD using the following procedures:

Non-Coast Guard Approved Type III PFDs (Figure 3-4) are intended for specific activities and may be carried instead of a Coast Guard-approved Type III PFD only if used according to the approval condition on the label. Examples of Non-Coast Guard Approved Type III PFDs are: (01) Mustang Survival MD-3183 v22 with survival equipment pockets, (02) Lifesaving Systems Life Preserver Survival Vest. Non-Coast Guard Approved PFDs are not Coast Guard approved because they have beaded handles

NOTE

vice t-handles (which have been deemed a snag hazard). Reference (a) contains a list of all Non- Coast GuardApproved PFDs.

The Non-Coast Guard Approved Type III PFD offers boat crew members greater comfort and maneuverability compared to the typical Type III vest. Lightweight and not as bulky, the inflatable Non-Coast Guard Approved Type III device is especially beneficial to units in warmer climates. When fully inflated, the inflatable Non-Coast Guard Approved Type III provides more buoyancy. Some Non-Coast Guard Approved Type III inflatables provide storage pockets/pouches which, when properly outfitted, eliminate the need for wearing the Boat Crew Survival Vest mentioned later in this chapter.

The initial purchase price and preventive maintenance costs of Non-Coast Guard Approved Type III inflatable PFDs are greater than most Type III vests. It also requires more frequent and complicated preventive maintenance. As with any other automated feature, if the auto-inflate mechanism were inoperative, the PFD would have to be manually inflated. This could be a problem if the crew member is knocked unconscious while falling overboard. Automatically inflatable PFDs are also know to hinder egress from an enclosed cabin environment.

There are several different styles of Non-Coast Guard Approved Type III PFDs. Each has a specific method of donning, equipment storage, and activation. Prior to use, each crew member must complete the performance qualification standards for that specific style of Non-Coast Guard Approved Type III. PFD PQS can be found on the Office of Boat Forces Portal site.

easily deployed to a person-in-the-water and are grasped by the user until rescued. Buoyant cushions come in many different colors. Ring buoys (see Figure 3-5) are usually international orange.

An advantage of Ring Buoys/Throwable Devices is that since they are not worn like other PFDs, there are no size restrictions. This type of device is designed to be stored on deck for easy deployment should someone fall overboard. If quickly deployed following a person in the water, Ring Buoys/Throwable Devices also act as markers assisting in returning to the area where the person originally fell overboard. See Reference (b) for more information on Person-in-the-Water Recovery.

A disadvantage of Ring Buoys/Throwable Devices is that they are not worn, although some can be secured to the body once reached in the water.

Examples of Non-Coast Guard Approved Cutter Specific PFDs include the Standard Navy PFD with Collar (Figure 3-5) and the Abandon Ship Life Preserver.

This preserver is one of the best devices for keeping a person afloat; however, its major drawback is that it requires training to become familiar with the many straps and fastenings used to don this device quickly and properly. Consequently, the Standard Navy Preserver is not Coast Guard-approved for civilian use. Auxiliarist or other government agency (OGA) going aboard a Coast Guard cutter as crew (or passenger) should be given instructions in donning this PFD.

Use the following procedure to put on the standard Navy PFD with collar:

The Abandon Ship Life Preserver may be used as an option by cutter personnel in high heat areas and/or confined spaces during general emergency conditions or abandon-ship operations but is not a replacement for the Navy Type I PFD w/ Collar.

Use the following procedures to don, adjust, and inflate the Abandon Ship Life Preserver:

The best way to avoid cold-related injuries is to wear proper clothing. When choosing clothing combinations, the best advice is to layer clothing.

Wet clothing robs the body of heat by breaking down the thermal protection of insulated clothing. It is extremely important to replace wet clothing as soon as possible to prevent cold-related injuries, particularly if the person is idle after a period of heavy perspiring. Many cold weather medical problems involve wet hands, feet and head. These areas should receive special care.

The anti-exposure coveralls are the primary Layer III garment worn when members are exposed to intermittent sea spray or rain and thermal protection is required (Figure 3-6). If properly worn with the straps appropriately adjusted, the water will not flush out of the suit and will delay the onset of hypothermia.

Anti-exposure coveralls are designed to be worn over the uniform in the same manner as standard coveralls. Also, hoods, balaclava, goggles and gloves should be used to protect against the elements.

Before entering the water with anti-exposure coveralls, perform the following procedures:

The dry suit, one part of a multilayered maritime cold-weather suit system (MCWSS), provides protection in areas where exposure to wind, spray, cold water, and hypothermia is likely (see Figure 3-7). The dry suit, with proper undergarments, provides the best protection for crew members in adverse weather and cold-water immersion. When the mission performed by the member is more likely to cause excess damage to a dry suit (AtoN maintenance, fisheries boardings), other Coast Guard authorized hypothermia protective clothing may be worn. Details on all authorized PFDs can be found in Reference (a).

WARNING

Dry suits provide no inherent buoyancy. A PFD must be worn over a dry suit at all times while underway.

When worn with a PFD and proper undergarments, a dry suit offers mobility and superior protection against the effects of wind, spray and cold-water immersion.

Use the following procedure to put on the MCWSS. Follow the steps closely to ensure proper sealing of neck and wrist seals:

WARNING CAUTION!

Use extreme caution when donning the MCWSS. Prior to donning the MCWSS, remove all rings, watches, earrings, necklaces and eyeglasses that will cause damage to wrist and neck seals.

Before entering the water, perform the following procedures:

Use the following procedure to take off the dry suit:

CAUTION!

Coxswains, crew members, boarding officers and boarding team members may use the Industrial breathable marine survival system (MSD901) in lieu of the MCWSS when operating in conditions requiring dry suit use.

Use the following procedure to put on the MSD901. Follow the steps closely to ensure proper sealing of neck and wrist seals:

WARNING

WARNING

Use of comfort devices to stretch the neck or wrist seals away from the skin such as neck rings or O-ring comfort devices are not authorized and shall not be used.

WARNING

Per reference (a), the MSD901 shall be worn with all three modules completely assembled. Use extreme caution when donning the MSD901. Prior to donning the MSD901, remove all

CAUTION!

rings, watches, earrings, necklaces and eyeglasses that will cause damage to wrist and neck seals.

Use the following procedure to take off the MSD901:

CAUTION! Failure to completely open slide fastener will damage the suit when it is removed.

Two dry suits are approved specially for ice rescue operations only: (01) The MSD 640 dry suit, and (02) The MSD 630 dry suit. Per reference (a), all previously purchased dry suits that are still serviceable are authorized for use until the repair cost exceeds 50% of the purchase price of a new

NOTE

dry suit.

Before

donning the MSD-640, ensure appropriate polypropylene

undergarments are worn.

CAUTION!

Always don the dry suit on a clean surface such as a towel or tarp to avoid attracting debris. Pebbles, sand, dirt and other debris on the ground can cause damage to dry suit sock and compromise the suit’s integrity.

CAUTION!

Use extreme care when donning the dry suit. Prior to donning, remove all rings, watches, earrings, necklaces and eyeglasses that will cause damage to the wrist and neck seals. Footwear other than thermal socks must not be worn inside the drysuit. Use the following procedures to put on the MSD640. Follow the steps closely to ensure proper sealing of the neck and wrist seals:

Use the following procedure to take off the MSD640:

The cutter surface swimmer dry suit is worn by cutter surface swimmer personnel when deployed into water that is 50 degrees Fahrenheit and below.

Use the following steps to put on the cutter surface swimmer dry suit:

Use this procedure to take off the cutter surface swimmer dry suit:

Boat crew survival vests contain the equipment listed in Table 3-1 Boat Crew Survival Vest Contents, with their use, characteristics, and operation described later in this Section. Figure 3-10 shows the boat crew survival vest and the proper storage location for each item. In addition to the PFD, each crew member must also be outfitted with either a boat crew survival

WARNING

vest, or if wearing a Type III inflatable PFD, the same contents found in the survival vest stored in the PFD’s pocket/pouch. Reference applicable maintenance procedure cards.

Table 3-1 — Boat Crew Survival Vest Contents

Emergency Signaling Mirror

The emergency signaling mirror is a pocket-sized mirror with a sighting hole in the center and a lanyard attached (see Figure 3-11). However, any common mirror is useful as an emergency signaling device.

The mirror is used to attract the attention of passing aircraft, boats, or ground rescue teams by reflecting light at them. Instructions for using the mirror are printed on its backside.

Light reflected in this manner can be seen at a great distance from the point of origin. Practice is the key to effective use of a signal mirror.

The following procedures describe how to properly use this accessory:

emits a high intensity white LED visual distress signal (Figure 3-12).

The strobe light is used to attract the attention of aircraft, ships, or ground parties. One side is equipped with hook fasner tape so that it can be attached to the boat crew safety helmet, inflatable PFD, or survival vest. This eliminates the need to hold the strobe light, freeing up hands to operate other signaling equipment.

The strobe lights emit approximately 50 to 70 flashes per minute. It will operate for a minimum of 8 hours continuous, but typically 18+ hours. Depending on atmospheric conditions, the strobe light has a visual range of 2 – 5 miles.

The following are the procedures to operate the strobe light:

The MK-79 MOD 0 is a pyrotechnic illumination signal kit that contains seven screw-in cartridge flares (MK-80) and one pencil-type projector (MK-31). The projector in this kit is used to aim and fire a signal cartridge (Figure 3-13). Additional information can be found in reference (d).

The MK-79 MOD 0 is used to attract vessels, aircraft, and ground rescue teams.

These signals produce a single red star display at an altitude of 250-650 feet for a minimum time of 4.5 seconds. Their luminous intensity is about 12,000 candle power.

The following are procedures for operating the MK-79 MOD 0:

WARNING Keep the projectile-end of the flare pointed in a safe direction while loading the flare in the projector. Ensure Step 2 is completed prior to “loading.” Accidental firing may occur if projector is not cocked.

The whistle is a small, hand-held device (see Figure 3-14) that produces a loud sound when it is blown. The standard whistle is constructed of plastic and resembles a police officer’s whistle.

The sound produced by a whistle will attract the attention of rescuers and guide them to the whistle’s origination. During periods of restricted visibility, fog, and darkness, rescuers may hear the sound it produces before they sight the strobe light.

Depending on weather conditions, a whistle’s audible sound may be heard at a distance of up to 1,000 yards. Any wind has the effect of carrying the sound downwind.

The MK-124 Mod 0/1 is a pyrotechnic smoke and illumination signal used day or night as a distress signal at sea or on land (Figure 3-15). One end produces orange smoke as the day signal and the other end produces a red flare as the night signal. Additional information can be found in Reference (d).

NOTE

Auxiliary crew members may use commercially available Coast Guard approved survival equipment while operating an Auxiliary facility. See reference (c) for specific requirements.

These signals are used to attract vessels, aircraft, and ground rescue teams day or night. The signal may also be used to indicate wind direction for helicopter hoists. It is labeled with the following operating instructions: (01) Do not dispose of the signal until both ends have been used. (02) Only when signals misfire should it be disposed of over the side. Misfires are a safety hazard if kept onboard a vessel. (03) When both ends of the signal have been discharged, properly dispose of it. In an actual distress situation, spent signals may be tossed over the side. Per reference (a), under no circumstances shall personnel ignite both

WARNING

ends simultaneously.

As mentioned above, both ends of the device produce a signal and each end burns for about 20 seconds. The night end produces a red flare (similar to a road flare) and the day end produces orange smoke.

The device has two raised bands around its circumference on its night end (flare). These bands positively identify the night end by sense of touch. Also, a label on the case identifies the day (smoke) and night (flare) ends and provides instructions for use. After choosing which end to use, perform the following procedures:

The survival knife (Figure 3-16) is a basic tool used to free the crew member from entangling lines. It is also used to cut material blocking a path in escaping a capsized or sinking boat. It should be a fixed blade design with a blunt tip made of corrosion-resistant material. The blade should be checked periodically for sharpness.

The PLB (Figure 3-17) is a smaller version of the common ship mounted 406 MHz EPIRB that is used on military, commercial, and recreational vessels. This personal transmitter is capable of broadcasting a distress signal that can be received and tracked world-wide guiding emergency response resources to the transmitting position for rescue.

The PLB is for emergency use only. This device is the primary distress signal and should be activated immediately to signal for help. Once activated, do not turn it off. Once search vessels or aircraft have reached the transmitting position area, use other signaling equipment (radio, signal mirror, flares, etc.) to vector them to the position.

The PLB is a personal transmitter capable of broadcasting on both 406 MHz and 121.5 MHz. The international satellite based search and rescue system (COSPAS SARSAT) monitors 406 MHz and is able to provide a position accurate to within three nautical miles within 90 minutes. Once the rescue platform is in the vicinity, the 121.5 MHz transmitter provides a signal allowing the resource to home in on the vessel or individual in distress particularly if the individual is equipped with flares and a strobe light.

Since PLB’s may vary in style and operation, as new models are produced, each crew member should read and understand the PLB owner’s handbook. Prior to getting underway with the PLB the first time, each crew member should demonstrate the test sequence and explain the activation procedure to a qualified member.

The parachute illumination signal, M127A1 is a night time illumination- signaling device. When fired, it climbs to an altitude of 650 to 700 feet before igniting. Upon ignition, it produces a parachute-suspended white star flare that burns for about 36 seconds with 125,000 candlepower. The signal descends at a rate of 10 to 15 feet per second (Figure 3-18).

Per reference (a), the following safety precautions shall be strictly observed when firing the parachute illumination signal: (01) Do not remove a signal from its sealed container until just before use. (02) Do not attempt to use dented, cracked, or otherwise damaged or deteriorated signals. (03) While handling the illumination signal outside of its canister, be sure to avoid striking the primer.

The following are procedures for firing the parachute illumination signal M127A1:

WARNING

When conducting SAR operations with a helicopter, extreme caution and coordination must be used by surface units using pyrotechnics. Do not fire pyrotechnics without permission and instructions from the Aircraft Commander.

Firing a signal at angles other than a vertical position may be necessary under the following circumstances: (01) To compensate for high wind velocities. (02) To gain maximum illumination of the area.

NOTE

If a signal is fired at an angle less than 90° elevation (directly overhead), the altitude reached is reduced and the altitude of candle burnout is lessened. If the firing angle is 60° or less, the candle will, in almost all cases, still be burning when it strikes the surface.

When a boat is in the water, two forces, buoyancy versus gravity work against each other. While buoyancy pushes up from the water to keep a boat afloat, gravity pushes the boat down into the water. Under normal circumstances the forces of buoyancy and gravity will offset each other, unless an external force acts upon a boat. Stability is of paramount importance – if a boat becomes unstable, small, normally minor outside forces can create a situation where capsizing can occur or perhaps be just one bad boat handling maneuver away. While stability loss itself can cause a boat to capsize, it is often a combination of loss of stability, environmental factors, and maneuvering decisions that lead to capsizing. A boat is less likely to capsize in deep, open water. The chances of capsizing are greatest while operating in or near the surf or breaking seas. The force needed to capsize is most likely to come from heavy seas directly astern (following seas), or large breakers striking abeam. If in doubt, a boat should stay at sea until conditions change. The safest point for most boats to take heavy seas is nearly bow-on. A boat should not operate or tow in conditions beyond the capability of the boat or crew. In such conditions, the Operational Commander should be advised so that the proper resource (e.g. MLB, cutter, or helicopter) can respond. While not necessarily contributing or causal factors, conditions present in many capsizings included: (01) Surf or breaking seas, (02) Shallow water depth (less than 20 feet), (03) High speed maneuvers, (04) Going against a strong tidal current and with steep following seas, (05) Escorting or towing another boat through an inlet, (06) Maneuvering a boat alongside another vessel while underway, (07) Restricted visibility due to darkness, rain, or fog, (08) Center of gravity changes (e.g. low fuel in the tank, execessive amounts of water in the bilges, icing of topsides, or overloading of cargo and/or people).

The general equipment found on boats used for multi-mission response a brief statement of the purpose of each item is provided in Table 3-1.

Table 3-1 — (continued)

If the hull is intact after capsizing, it may not sink for some time, even in rough seas, but quick egress is the best option for survival. The crew will be able to escape if panic is avoided. Some preparations and good to know information ahead of time include: (01) Perform frequent visualization “what-if” scenarios (night time, seating locations, etc.). (02) Learn the boat’s interior. Initially the crew will be disoriented due to being upside down, water up your nose, and with a lack of lighting. (03) Stow all loose gear, and have all equipment and doors operating properly for ease in escaping. (04) Know the location and use of all survival equipment. Check them regularly to be sure that it is adequate, in good repair, and that all signalling devices work. (05) Be ready to grab a sturdy support to prevent being thrown about. (06) Cold water decreases the length of time most people can hold their breath underwater. Immersion in cold water may give a sensation of tightness in the chest and also causes a gasp reflex which may impact your ability to hold your breath. (07) Remember if you are wearing an inherently buoyant PFD or an inflatable PFD that has been activated, the PFD’s buoyancy will try to bring you to the surface of the water but the cabin will be in the way. In theory, if you remain upright, you will be able to walk out of the boat on the overhead which is now acting as the deck. In most cases it will be difficult to remain upright and therefore your PFD may “pin” you to the overhead (deck). Consider removing PFD if necessary.

A boat doesn’t capsize without influencing forces. As mentioned in A.1. Potential Capsizing Forces and Factors of this Section there are certain conditions and factors that make capsizing more likely. Regardless of whether the above conditions are present or not, there comes a point where the operator feels a difference inhow the boat normally feels. For example, the time for action is as soon as the boat starts to roll beyond normal limits, heel, or feel different from normal.

If the boat you are on capsizes make every effort to egress as quickly as possible. If you are not entrapped, GET OUT as quickly as possible! Your escape route is a common sense decision. Do not think of egress routes in terms of primary, secondary or tertiary egress routes where there are preferred exits. Instead consider where you are and your initial response given your position in the boat. Procedures for egress from a cabin boat are below: (01) Remain Calm, (02) Brace for impact/roll, (03) Wait until all violent motion has stopped, (04) Maintain reference point with one hand on armrest, handrail. etc. (05) Open window/door, (06) Release restraint (If applicable), (07) Continue to maintain reference points while exiting through door/window, (08) Exit through door/window by pulling your body using a hand-over- hand technique – DO NOT Kick as this can disorient or injure a crew member following you out the same exit, (09) If necessary, remove excess gear (PFD, LE belt, etc.), (10) Once on the surface – see A.6. Post Capsize Procedures.

If the boat you are on capsizes and your initial response to egress is blocked or unsuccessful, shift to your secondary response. This will be the next most logical exit available to you. Additional procedures are below: (01) Remain Calm. (02) If needed, seek air pocket prior to secondary attempt. (03) Maintain reference point and use hand-over-hand technique to the secondary response exit - DO NOT Kick as this can disorient or injure a crew member following you out the same exit. (04) Open Door/Window. (05) If necessary, remove excess gear (PFD, LE belt, etc.). (06) Once on the surface – see Post capsize procedures.

Survivors from a capsized boat should attempt to stay with the boat or other visible floating debris. This not only offers a larger target for search assets but also affords more protection against hypothermia as water robs your body of heat faster than air. (01) Climb onto hull of vessel (if possible). (02) Take personnel muster. (03) Activate PLB. (04) Visually scan for possible rescue vessels. If in range, personnel act as a team to signal using pyro, signal mirror, etc. (05) Inventory Survival gear. (06) Stay with the boat until rescued or boat sinks.

NOTE

If unable to board the overturned hull, survivors should huddle and tether themselves together and stay with the overturned vessel. Survivors should make every effort to stay with the overturned vessels without physically tying themselves to the vessel.

Make every effort to egress from a capsized boat quickly, it is your best option to survive but if for some reason someone cannot exit the capsized boat: (01) Remain calm and stay within an air pocket. (02) Unless certain of rescue efforts on the surface, activate PLB. There is no guarantee that other crew were able to escape and initiate rescue. (03) When hearing rescuers, attempt to communicate to them by shouting or tapping on the hull. (04) Conserve oxygen by remaining calm and minimizing physical activity. If possible, get out of the water to reduce risk of hypothermia. (05) Remember that rescuers should arrive soon.

When properly stowed, this life raft is designed to automatically float free from its storage rack and inflate in the event of capsizing or sinking. As the raft container is released and drifts away, the inflation cable, attached to the raft-end of the 50-foot painter line, is pulled tight. When this occurs, the CO2 cylinder will automatically discharge and inflate the life raft. The painter line will remain attached to the rack by a weak link, which requires 500 pounds of force to separate. Separation will also occur by heaving around on the painter line or by the stress exerted on it from the raft’s buoyancy if the boat/cutter sinks to a depth greater than 50 feet.

Because of increased functionality and capability of boats, the use of rescue rafts is dwindling in the Coast Guard. Depending on the situation, if time permits before sinking, manually deploy the life raft. If the life raft is not automatic, or if its automatic functions do not work, follow the procedures outlined in B.2.a. Manual Inflation Procedures of Boat-Installed Life Raft or B.2.b. Manual Inflation Procedures of Cutter Life Raft for manual deployment.

To manually deploy the rescue and survival raft, perform the following procedures (see Figure 4-1):

Use the following procedure to deploy the raft for use by the crew:

With the life raft deployed and tied off alongside, the boat/cutter crew should try to remain onboard the platform for as long as possible. If the boat/cutter starts to sink rapidly, try and board the life raft directly, cutting the painter line once onboard. If unable to board the raft directly, you will need to enter the water. Once in the water get aboard the life raft. This is done by climbing on the boarding ladder or ramp depending on the type of raft and pulling yourself up using the straps attached to the raft for this purpose.

Perform the following procedures:

WARNING

Due to the high risk of accidentally puncturing inflatable rafts, extreme care must be taken when boarding or assisting personnel out of the water and into the raft. This is especially important if such persons are wearing survival vests. Once in the life raft all persons should seat themselves on the floor and remain in that position if possible. All sharp objects should be collected and stored to prevent puncturing the raft fabric.

Upon boarding a raft, complete the following procedures as soon as possible:

CAUTION!

Be careful not to snag the raft with your shoes or with sharp objects.

The safety and survival of everyone in a raft depends on clear thinking and common sense. To protect those aboard and increase survival time, perform the following procedures:

When it is impossible or too dangerous to maneuver close to a distressed vessel, the life raft may be used to ferry survivors to the boat. It may also be used to recover people from the water if a boat cannot get close enough to them.

WARNING

Although the raft is ballasted and very stable in most sea states, it may capsize in large breaking waves. For this reason, consider other methods for rescue of people in breaking surf or seas. (e.g., helicopter rescue).

Use the following procedures when deploying a life raft during a rescue attempt (see Figure 4-2):

Without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, and with it, everything honorable and glorious.

As you learned in earlier chapters, being a professional Sailor is dangerous. These dangers aren’t limited to just your job in the Navy. In times of conflict, your ship or shore station may be in contact with an enemy force or ship. Regardless of your rate, rating, or duty station, you may need to stay alive in the water until you can reach land or be rescued. You must have the knowledge required to live in the field with limited equipment (survival) and to avoid the enemy (evasion). If captured, you also have the responsibility to flee from the enemy (escape) if possible.

This chapter contains information on the principles and techniques of sea survival, evasion, land survival, and escape that have been used successfully worldwide. The information given here is by no means all-inclusive, but should serve to help you if the need arises.

Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter, you will be able to—

• Recall the methods and procedures for abandoning ship.

• Identify the techniques for swimming through oil, flames, and debris.

• Recognize the techniques for using clothing and buoyant objects to stay afloat.

• Recognize the procedures used to care for and use personal floatation devices and the use of lifeboats and associated survival gear.

• Recall the characteristics of, use of, and adjustment to CO2 inflatable and inherently buoyant life preservers.

• Identify the responsibilities and authority of the senior person in a survival situation.

Survival at sea depends on your knowledge, self-control, training, and equipment. The time to learn

—George Washington as much as possible about survival and rescue at sea is before you abandon ship, not after you find yourself in the water. The information for survival at sea is general in nature and applies to all Navy ratings.

Having to abandon ship isn’t pleasant. Your “home” is gone along with most of your possessions and possibly some of your shipmates. You don’t know how long you must wait for rescue. However, with the proper knowledge and training, frightening aspects can be greatly reduced. Don’t panic and don’t give up hope. Remember, the Navy knows you’re missing and is searching for you. Also, remember that thousands of persons have survived ships sinking in both wartime and peacetime.

If time permits, the crew will abandon the ship in a planned and orderly manner. In the prepare-to-abandon-ship stage, all personnel go topside and muster at their abandon ship stations, don life jackets, and rig lines and ladders over the side. Bearing and distance to the nearest land, sea and wind conditions, and water temperature are passed over the 1MC (ship’s general announcing system). When the order to abandon ship is given, all boats are lowered and lifeboats are released. The crew members then go over the side and board them as quickly as possible. Know Escape Routes

Many survivors have reported that their shipmates were lost because they were unable to get topside before the ship sank. In many of these cases, the compartments in which personnel were trapped were not cut off—the individuals only thought they were.

Once on board a particular ship, most Sailors learn the easiest ways from their berthing compartments to their stations and automatically use these routes day after day. The habit of using the same hatches and ladders day after day becomes so strong that a person finds it difficult to use other routes. This habit is especially true of persons whose stations are in the lower part of the ship. However, a hit from a torpedo or bomb or a collision with another ship may flood the compartments normally used or knock out a ladder. Often, some measure to control flooding taken by the damage control party closes off the normal method of travel.

The only answer to this situation is to know your ship. Small ships don’t present much of a problem because they have only a few routes you can follow. However, large ships are another matter. Aboard an aircraft carrier or cruiser, learning all the passageways, doors, and ladders takes a long time. During leisure time, learn escape routes from various below-deck sections to the weather decks. Ask the individuals who work in those sections the best way to get topside; then follow that route. The time to experiment is before an emergency occurs, not during one. Going Over the Side

As in everything else, there is a right way and a wrong way to abandon ship. Whenever possible, go over the side fully clothed. Shoes and clothing may hinder you while swimming; but in lifeboats, a covering of any kind offers protection against the effects of sun and salt water. In a cold climate, wear a watch cap to keep your head warm. Take along a pair of gloves and extra clothes if you can. Even in tropical waters you may feel cool at night because you can dolittle tokeep warm.

Normally, you should leave from whichever side of the ship is lower in the water; but, if the propellers are turning, leave from the bow. Leave by the windward side whenever possible. Leaving from the lee side might protect you from a stiff wind, but the same wind causes the ship to drift down on you, often faster than you can swim. Also, if oil is on the water, you can clear the slick sooner by swimming into the wind.

Never dive, and do not jump unless you have to. Use a ladder, cargo net, line, or fire hose. If you must jump, do so feet first, legs together, and body erect. (First, check the water so you will not land on debris or on other personnel.) Except when jumping into flames, be sure your life preserver is fastened securely, including the leg straps. If you are wearing a vest-type preserver, place one hand firmly on the opposite shoulder to keep the preserver from riding up sharply when you hit the water (in a long drop, the force of impact might hurt your chin or neck). Hold your nose with your other hand. If you are wearing an inflatable preserver, inflate it after you have entered the water. In the Water

Once you are in the water, your immediate concern is to clear the ship as quickly as possible. Before you rest, you should try to be 150 to 200 yards away from the ship. When the ship goes down, it may create a strong whirlpool effect, which might draw you down with the ship if you are too close. Another advantage of distance is that you will be safer if an explosion occurs.

After you are safely away from the ship, conserve your energy. Don’t splash about or shout unnecessarily. If any danger of underwater explosions exists, float or swim on your back with your head and chest as far out of the water as possible. Help your shipmates all you can, and try to stay in groups (fig. 15-1). Get on a lifeboat, of course, as soon as you can. In the meantime, grab anything floatable that comes by, or just relax in the water. Above all, remain calm!

SWIMMING AND FLOATING.—Check the chart shown below. It tells you the requirements you must meet to qualify as a third class, second class, and first class swimmer.

Meeting the requirements for swimmer third class won’t help you if you have to swim ½ mile to a lifeboat. You can see that by qualifying for swimmer second class, you’d have a better chance to survive. Better yet, qualifying for swimmer first class gives you the best chance for survival.

After abandoning ship, you may have to swim fast, slow, on the water, or under the water. You may have to put on or take off clothes; carry or search for objects; float for hours; or in shark-infested waters, lie still and keep your arms and legs from dangling. There is a lot you might have to do. You can get ready by practicing all the strokes you know.

THIRD CLASS SWIMMER

1. Enter the water feet first from a height of 5 feet

2. Remain afloat for 5 minutes

3. Swim 50 yards

SECOND CLASS SWIMMER

1. Jump from a height of 10 feet

2. Remain afloat for 10 minutes

3. Swim 100 yards, using three survival strokes for at least 25 yards each:

• Breast stroke

• Side stroke

• Elementary back stroke

FIRST CLASS SWIMMER

1. Swim 220 yards

2. Enter the water feet first and immediately swim

25 yards underwater (you may surface for air twice at 25-foot intervals)

3. Remove your trousers or slacks in the water and inflate them

4. Tow another person 25 yards, using the following methods:

• Cross-chest carry

• Extended reach (recommended for struggling victims)

• Grabbing the victims hair from behind and use side stroke (recommended for towing unconscious victims)

Almost all the Navy’s shore installations have swimming facilities for your use. Here, you can practice swimming. You should practice various strokes and extend your swimming range. Then, you will feel more confident that you can stay afloat and swim to a distant lifeboat or floating object.

SWIMMING THROUGH FLAMES.— Flame-covered water is a terrifying sight. However, you don’t need to be afraid of jumping into flames. If you follow the procedures listed here, you will clear the burning area safely (fig. 15-2).

1. Don’t wear an inherently buoyant life preserver

(if you have one on, get rid of it).

2. If you’re wearing a CO2 preserver, keep it on but don’t inflate it.

3. Discard your shoes because they will hinder your underwater swimming.

4. Take a deep breath when you jump from the ship and cover your nose and mouth with one hand and your eyes with the other.

5. Swim as far underwater as possible.

6. When you must come up for air, extend your arms above your head, then pull them back in a wide sweep to force the upper part of your body above the surface.

7. When you surface, use your hands and arms to make wide sweeping movements across the surface to splash the water and drive away the flames.

NOTE

As you pop up above the surface, try to turn your back to the wind before you take a breath.

8. Submerge again feet first, and repeat the procedure until you’re clear of the burning oil. When going into oil that isn’t burning, save your preserver to use as a raft. Keep your face above the surface. Keeping your head above the surface helps keep oil from getting into your eyes and mouth. AIDS FOR STAYING AFLOAT.—If you’re in the water without a life jacket, don’t become frightened that you can’t stay afloat—you can. Several articles of clothing, including the white hat, provide some flotation when used properly. The most useful article is your trousers or slacks, which you can inflate to serve as water wings.

1. To remove your trousers, lean forward in the water and slowly slip them down over your hips and legs. Don’t let go of them—they may sink. To inflate your trousers—

2. Zip them; then float them on the surface with the fly or front turned down.

3. Tie a knot in each leg as close to the cuff as possible.

4. Work the garment around on the surface until the legs are over your shoulders and the knots are behind you, leaving the crotch in front of you.

5. Grasp the waist of the trousers with one hand on each side; then extend your arms straight upward, kicking your feet to get your body as high out of the water as you can.

6. When this position is reached, pull the trousers downward smartly on the surface, trapping a pocket of air in each leg.

7. Then gather the waist under the water and hold in one hand (fig. 15-3). Keep the trousers legs wet by splashing water on them to reduce the loss of the trapped air.

You may use mattress covers, sea bags, laundry bags, and pillowcases in a similar manner. A large amount of debris, such as pieces of wood, empty shell boxes, powder cans, and so forth, is usually present. You can use this debris to stay afloat.

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-1.—Joining life preservers.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-2.—Swimming through flames.]

The two basic categories of flotation devices are life preservers and lifeboats. Each is vital to the survival of a ship’s crew if the ship sinks. Other than the lifeboat, the life preserver (commonly called a life jacket) is the most important piece of abandon ship equipment.

The inherently buoyant (vest-type) preserver is designed so that, if adjusted properly, it supports you and keeps your head out of the water even if you are unconscious. With a life preserver on, you can stay afloat for many days. Without a life preserver, you have little chance of surviving in the water for any great length of time.

The lifeboat presents the greatest chance of survival because it contains food and water, provides shelter from the elements, and contains equipment that greatly enhance your chances for survival.

During wartime, each person aboard ship is issued a life preserver. Wear it or keep it handy at all times. During peacetime, life preservers are stowed in ready-use lockers. Know where your preserver is stowed, how to put it on, and how to release and inflate the lifeboat. Life Preservers

The Navy uses two types of life preservers—the inherently buoyant and the inflatable types. The inherently buoyant type has several designs. The vest type is the most widely used.

INHERENTLY BUOYANT TYPE.—The inherently buoyant vest type of life preserver (fig. 15-4) uses fibrous glass pads to provide buoyancy. The pads are sealed in plastic waterproof bags placed in an outer cover or envelope. The preserver has cloth tapes to pull tight for a close fit. Leg straps prevent it from riding up while you are in the water. A body strap across the chest helps give a snug fit and provides a hold for lifting you out of the water. You can also use the strap to attach yourself to a life raft or to other persons in the water.

Put on the vest type of life preserver over your clothing. Tie the upper tapes to make it fit comfortably, and pull the tape at the waist fairly tight to keep the preserver from sliding up in the water. Then adjust the chest strap and fasten the snap hook into the ring. Pull the leg straps as tight as possible without producing discomfort. Tie the collar tapes tightly under the chin. The collar holds the head upright and helps prevent an unconscious person from drowning.

INFLATABLE TYPE.—The inflatable life preserver (fig. 15-5) is made of lightweight, neoprene-coated nylon. It’s carried in a pouch container held around your waist on a web belt. You blow up the inflatable preserver either by mouth or by using a carbon dioxide (CO2 ) cylinder. It’s equipped with a lifting harness, a waist belt, and a wooden toggle and a line for attaching yourself to a life raft or another survivor. Take the following steps when using the inflatable life preserver:

1. Pull the pouch around to the front, remove the preserver from its pouch, and slip it over your head.

2. Grasp the lanyard attached to the CO2 cylinder and jerk downward. If you need more buoyancy, the life preserver can be orally inflated by taking the following steps:

a. Turn down the knurled ring at the base of the oral inflation tube as far as it will go.

b. Depress the mouthpiece by force of the mouth, and blow into the tube as if you were blowing up a balloon.

c. Release the mouthpiece when inhaling to prevent escape of the air.

3. When the preserver is inflated, lock the oral valve by turning the knurled ring against the mouthpiece.

NOTE

Always wait until you have entered the water to inflate this type of life preserver.

The automatically inflatable work-type life preserver provides you maximum lifesaving protection. At the same time, it doesn’t interfere with the jobs you do, such as working over the side, performing underway replenishment (UNREP) duties, working as part of a boat crew, or manning selected battle stations. The automatically inflatable work-type life preserver will—

• Inflate the life preserver if you go into the water in an unconscious or helpless state.

• Allow you to inflate the auto inflatable preserver orally by the auto function device or by using a combination of the two.

The auto-function device uses a water-degradable paper to release a spring that causes two CO2 cylinders to be punctured and inflate the preserver.

PIN-ON LIGHTS.—Small watertight flashlights or chemically activated light sticks have been developed for use with life preservers to help rescuers see a person in the water more easily at night. The flashlight consists of a one-cell battery case to which is permanently attached a heavy metal safety pin for fastening the light 360° visibility from above. The chemically activated to the preserver. The lens is dome-shaped, providing light sticks are activated by a chemical reaction in the stick.

Wear these lights whenever you use the life preserver. Check the battery at least once a week to see that it works. Replace the battery at least every 6 months. Check the light stick each time you use the preserver, and replace it if you see any indication that the stick has been damaged or used. Remember the following tips when using these lights:

• On the vest-type preserver, pin the light near the top of your shoulder so that the lens points upward.

• When pinning the light on the vest-type preserver, take care not to pierce the waterproof covering in which the fibrous glass pads are wrapped.

• Attach the light to the inflatable preserver to the tab provided for this purpose. Some ships may issue strobe lights. These lights have a brighter intensity. The battery screws in and is water-resistant.

Some commands are issuing chemical lights as life vest pin-on lights. The light used for a pin-on light has a green color when the chemical is activated. You activate the chemical light by squeezing the lens, which crushes an inner vial; that allows the chemicals to mix, causing the wand to glow.Dispose ofthese lights after one use. CARE AND STOWAGE OF PRESERVERS.— Some of the rules you should follow when taking care of and stowing your preservers are contained in the following section: Laundering your life preserver. Inherently buoyant life preservers—

• Launder the outer covers after removing the fibrous glass pads. (NOTE: Don’t launder the pads.)

• Clean the inflatable types with a mild soap solution only. Stowing your life preserver. The rules for stowing life preservers include—

• Don’t stow life preservers in the vicinity of oil, paint, grease, heat, moisture, or dirt. The nylon material will deteriorate.

• Keep preservers clear of sharp edges, which increase wear and tear.

• Keep preservers away from steam lines and radiators.

• Dry preservers thoroughly before stowing them to prevent mildew.

• Don’t tamper with your life preserver or handle it roughly.

• Don’t sit or lie on it. This compresses and mats the filler pads and reduces the buoyancy of the preserver. Inspecting your life preserver. The following rules apply when inspecting life preservers:

• Inspect your inflatable life preserver every time you put it on and at least once every month (when in your custody).

• Inflate it by mouth to locate possible leaks in the air chamber or inflation valve.

• Make sure the piercing pin of the CO2 valve is in good working order and the cylinder itself has not been punctured.

• Weigh the cylinder on a gram scale to make sure it is fully charged. Other actions. Other actions you should take with regard to your life preserver include—

• Being able to put the life preserver on and adjust it in the dark.

• Treat it like a friend; someday it might turn out to be the best one you have! Lifeboats A warship doesn’t have room to carry all the powerboats needed to transport the entire crew. At sea, a powerboat is usually difficult and sometimes impossible to launch rapidly. For these reasons, the Navy has spent time and expense developing efficient lifeboats other than powerboats. The Navy uses several types of inflatable lifeboats. Each boat has sufficient equipment to support the number of survivors for which the boat was designed to carry. Each boat’s gear includes the following equipment:

• Canopy

• Sea anchor

• Lifeline

• Boarding line

• Rain-catcher tube

• Air hand pumps

• Paddles

• Sponges

• Boat repair kit for patching leaks

• Floatable knife The inflatable lifeboat (fig. 15-6) also carries—

• Desalter kits for turning seawater into freshwater.

• Survival kits containing food rations, sea marker dye, a flashlight, batteries, a signal mirror, a whistle, a first-aid kit, a distress signal kit, and containers of freshwater.

• Survival kits in the large boats are designed to sustain 15 to 20 people for 5 days on regular rations.

SIGNAL EQUIPMENT.—Using signaling equipment in the lifeboat correctly might be the difference between rescue or remaining adrift. The opportunity to attract the attention of friendly aircraft or surface vessels may pass quickly; you must be prepared at all times to use the signaling equipment.

The following chart (next page) describes how to use signaling equipment.

CARE AND USE OF SURVIVAL AND SIGNAL EQUIPMENT.—When using survival and signal equipment, stow it in containers for safekeeping and protection against the elements. Some of the items, such as the mirror and whistle, have a lanyard for wearing around the neck. Keep all items as dry as possible. After using any item, replace it in its container. Protect flashlights and knives from salt spray; otherwise, they will soon become corroded. About the only items that should be left out continuously are the sponges.

EQUIPMENT FOR OBTAINING WATER.— Never discard (throw away) any article that will hold water. When it rains, every container that can possibly hold water is invaluable. A rain-catcher tube attached to the lifeboat canopy will help you fill the containers. Even in a light rain, some water will drain from the canopy down through the tube. After filling all available containers, stow them carefully so that you won’t lose any water. Cover all open containers to slow down evaporation; use those you don’t have covers for first. During the rain, drink all you can hold.

In polar areas, you can obtain freshwater from old sea ice. Old sea ice is a bluish color, splinters easily, and is nearly free from salt. New ice is milky in color, hard, and salty. You may also obtain freshwater from icebergs, but use caution. As its underwater portion melts, an iceberg gets top heavy and can capsize without warning.

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-3.—Using inflated trousers/slacks for support.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-4.—Adjusting the inherently buoyant vest-type life preserver.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-5.—Inflatable life preserver.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-6.—Inflatable lifeboat.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-7.—Igniting the MK 13 distress signal.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-8.—Dye marker.]

Most of the following survival information applies to persons in lifeboats, but some of this information applies to persons in the water. In trying to survive at sea, you will face thirst, hunger, and exposure whether you are in a lifeboat or in the water. You can endure these conditions, however,ifyou takethe proper steps. Thirst

The one absolutely essential requirement for survival is drinking water. Without it, death will most likely occur in 8 to 12 days. Normally, you need about 2 quarts of water a day; but because of inactivity and lack of food, you can survive on as little as 6 ounces a day in a lifeboat.

Water is lost from the body by the evaporation of perspiration and through the digestive process. Some actions you can take to reduce water loss include the following:

• Keep your clothes wet during the day (weather permitting, of course), but dry them before sundown.

• Wear the least amount of clothes possible, depending upon your need for protection from the elements.

• If water is scarce, eat sparingly.

• Never drink seawater or urine. To do so would only aggravate your thirst and increase body water loss with a subsequent speedup in dehydration.

• Do not drink your entire daily water ration at one time. It is better to drink small amounts three or four times daily. Hunger

The food rations supplied with each lifeboat are specially designed to maintain your physical and mental abilities and aren’t thirst-provoking. The ration is based on an allowance of one packet per person per day; but, you should eat only when you feel the greatest need. Don’t take any food or water the first 24 hours. Food is much less important for survival than water. With water, a person can survivefor4weeks orlonger without food.

Nearly all forms of sea life are edible. Some fish are poisonous; for example, jellyfish (which you should never eat). Each lifeboat has a fishing kit for catching fish.

All sea birds are edible, and practically the entire bird is useful. In addition to the food and liquid obtained from sea birds, you can fashion fishhooks and lures from the bones and feathers. In cold weather, a bird’s skin (with feathers) will protect exposed parts of your body.

Birds sometimes settle on the raft or boat, and survivors have reported instances where birds landed on their shoulders. If birds are shy, try dragging a baited hook through the water or throwing a baited hook into the air.

You can catch gulls, terns, gannets, and albatrosses by dragging a baited hook behind the boat or raft. You can attract them within shooting distance by dragging a bright piece of metal or shell behind the raft. It’s possible to catch a bird if it lands within reach. Most birds, however, are shy and will settle on the raft out of reach. In that case, try a bird noose. Make it by tying a loose knot with two pieces of line, as shown in figure 15-9. Bait the center of the loop with fish entrails or similar bait. When the bird settles in the loop to eat the bait, tighten the noose around its feet.

The North Atlantic and the North Pacific have relatively few birds, and these are found mostly along the coasts. You may see many species of birds, often hundreds of miles from land, in southern waters. Exposure

Exposure presents many dangers. Some dangers include sunburn, hypothermia, frostbite, and immersion foot. Some actions you can take to survive these conditions are as follows:

All the information in this section applies mainly to ship disasters when your ship is sunk. Such events normally occur in wartime but rarely in peacetime. However, a mishap that can happen to you at any time, and usually without warning, is to fall overboard. One minute you are walking along the main deck; the next minute you are in the water, swimming for your life.

If you fall overboard and someone hears or sees you (one of the purposes of the lookout watch), you can count on being rescued within a few minutes. Such rescues are made in nearly every instance. However, if no one sees you fall overboard or hears a cry for help, you’ll be missed and rescue procedures will then be put into action.

If you fall overboard, the most important thing to do is stay calm. Panic will cause you more harm than almost anything else. If you see any floating debris nearby, hang on to it. Otherwise, remove and inflate your trousers. Remember, you can stay afloat for a long time, even without help, if you use the floating positions. Don’t swim after the ship, because you’ll only exhaust yourself needlessly, and the ship may waste valuable time searching for you at the point where you fell overboard.

The method used to rescue a person overboard depends on the circumstances at the time. In daylight, with good weather, a helicopter (if available) is normally used. Otherwise, the ship’s motor whaleboat is used, or you may be recovered directly over the side of the ship.

Helicopters use three basic devices for recovering a person in the water—

1. Sling. If the sling is used, adjust it so that it is across your back and under your arms with the hoisting cable in front of you.

2. Net. If the net is used, simply sit in it and hold on.

3. Two- or three-pronged seat. If a two- and three-pronged seat is used, sit on the prongs and wrap your arms around the upright portion.

When a motor whaleboat is used for rescue, the boat crew helps you into the boat. Also, a swimmer provides assistance if you are injured or exhausted. Don’t try to enter the boat from astern; you may be injured by the propeller.

If neither a helicopter nor a whaleboat can be used for rescue, the ship will maneuver to a position where a swimmer, towing a line, can reach you. After the line is fastened around your body, personnel on deck will haul you in and hoist you aboard.

While awaiting rescue, remain calm. If sharks are in the area, float on your back, using as little arm and leg movement as possible.

To decrease your chances of having to be rescued at all, observe all safety regulations. Don’t lean on lifelines. Don’t go on deck in bad weather unless you have to. Always wear a life preserver when working in areas where you are in danger of falling overboard. Aboard aircraft carriers, don’t walk behind a jet plane turning up its engines because the blast can blow you overboard.

Ships frequently hold man-overboard drills. In spite of precautions, accidents happen. Therefore, when you are at the beach, don’t spend all your time sunbathing. Practice swimming and floating. Someday your life may depend on your ability to swim and float.

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-9.—Bird noose.]

Q1. When aboard ship, you should know escape routes for what reason?

Q2. True or False. You should dive into the water to abandon ship.

Q3. What swimming classification gives you the best chance forsurvivalifyou havetoabandon ship?

Q4. If you have to jump from a ship into burning water, you should—

Q5. Which of the following items can you use to stay afloat?

a. Trousers

b. Sea bag

c. Pieces of wood

d. All of the above

Q6. List the two types of life preservers used by the Navy. a. b.

Q7. When you have custody of your life preserver, how often should you inspect it?

Q8. List the contents of survival kits carried by inflatable lifeboats. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

Q9. What is the one essential requirement for survival?

Q10. The food ration carried by lifeboats is based on how many packets per person per day?

Q11. List some of the dangers you might face by exposure. a. b. c. d.

Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter, you will be able to—

• Recall the methods and procedures for survival ashore to include individual survival, group survival, and methods of evasion and escape.

• Identify the responsibilities and authority of the senior person in a survival situation.

Survival is largely a matter of mental outlook, and the will to survive is the deciding factor. The experiences of hundreds of service personnel isolated during World War II and the Korean conflict and Vietnam police action prove that survival is largely a matter of mental outlook. These experiences also prove that the will to survive is the deciding factor in survival. Whether with a group or alone, you will experience emotional problems resulting from fear, despair, loneliness, and boredom. Your will to live will also be taxed by injury and pain, fatigue, hunger, and thirst. Being prepared mentally to overcome all obstacles and accept the worst greatly increases your chances of coming out alive.

The shock of being isolated behind the enemy lines, in a desolate area, or in enemy hands can be reduced or even avoided if you remember what each letter in the key word S-U-R-V-I-V-A-L stands for.

S ize up the situation

U ndue haste makes waste

R emember where you are

V anquish fear and panic

I mprovise

V alue living

A ct like the natives

L earn basic skills S — Size up the situation by considering yourself, the country, and the enemy.

In considering yourself, hope for the best, but be prepared for the worst. Get to a safe, comfortable place as quickly as possible. Once there, look things over, think, and form a plan. Your fear will lessen and your confidence will increase. Be calm! Take it easy until you know where you are and where you are going.

Part of your fear may come from being in a strange country; therefore, try to determine where you are by landmarks, compass directions, or by recalling intelligence information passed on to you by your leaders.

In considering the enemy, put yourself in the enemy’s shoes. What would you do? Watch the enemy’s habits and routines. Base your plan on your observation. Remember, you know where the enemy is; the enemy does not know where you are. U — Undue haste makes waste.

Don’t be too eager to move. That will make you careless and impatient. If you begin to take unnecessary risks, you have a good chance of being captured. Don’t lose your temper; doing so may cause you to stop thinking. When something irritating happens, stop, take a deep breath, relax, and start over.

Face the fact that danger does exist. To try to convince yourself otherwise only adds to the danger. R — Remember where you are.

You may give yourself away because you’re used to acting in a certain way. Doing “what comes naturally” could be the tip off that you don’t belong there. V — Vanquish fear and panic.

To feel fear is normal and necessary. It’s nature’s way of giving you that extra shot of energy just when you need it. Learn to recognize fear for what it is and control it. Look carefully at a situation and determine if your fear is justified. When you investigate, you will usually find many of your fears unreal.

When injured and in pain, you’ll have difficulty controlling fear. Pain sometimes turns fear into panic and causes you to act without thinking. Loneliness can also cause panic. It can lead to hopelessness, thoughts of suicide, carelessness, even capture or surrender. Recognizing these signs helps you overcome panic. I — Improvise.

You can always do something to improve the situation. Figure out what you need, take stock of what you have, and then improvise. Learn to put up with new and unpleasant conditions. Keeping your mind on SURVIVAL will help. Don’t be afraid to try strange foods. V — Value living.

Conserve your health and strength. Illness or injury will greatly reduce your chances of survival and escape. Hunger, cold, and fatigue lower your efficiency and stamina, make you careless, and increase the possibility of capture. Knowing that will make you especially careful because you’ll realize your low spirits are the result of your physical condition and not the danger. Remember your goal of getting out alive. Concentrating on the future—on the time when you will return home—will help you value living during your survival situation. A — Act like the natives.

“At a railroad station, there were German guards,” one World War II male escapee related. “I had an urgent need to go to the rest room. The only rest room was an exposed one in front of the station. I felt too embarrassed to relieve myself in front of all passersby. I walked throughout the entire town, occasionally stopping and inquiring if a rest room were available.”

This man was detected and captured because he failed to accept the customs of the natives. When you are in a foreign country, accept and adopt native behavior to avoid attracting attention to yourself. L — Learn basic skills.

The best life insurance is to make sure you learn the techniques and procedures for survival so thoroughly that they become automatic. That increases the chances that you will do the right thing, even in panic. What you know about survival could save your life. Be inquisitive and search for additional survival knowledge.

Just as you must make your reactions to survival situations automatic, so must the entire squad, platoon, or other group that you might be a member of or be leading. The best chance for survival belongs to the group that works together and has a leader who accepts responsibility for the group. When you are the senior person, accept responsibility for your group by taking steps to lead members to work together. Some actions you can take include the following:

Organize group survival activities. Group survival depends largely upon the organization of its manpower. Organized action by group members who know what to do and when to do it, during ordinary circumstances and during a crisis, prevents panic. Keeping the group informed, devising a plan, and sticking to the plan helps achieve organization.

Assume command and establish a chain of command that includes all members of the group. Good leadership lessens panic, confusion, and disorganization. Make certain each person knows his or her position in the chain of command and is familiar with the duties of every other person, especially your duties as the senior member. Under no circumstances leave leadership of the group to chance acceptance by some member after a situation arises.

Maintain respect for your leadership by using it wisely; be the leader and set the example. Group survival is a test of effective leadership. Watch out for problems that could turn into serious arguments. Keep troublemakers from attracting undue attention, and keep those who may “crack up” from disrupting the group. Prevent carelessness caused by fatigue, hunger, and cold. Know yourself and the members of your group; take responsibility for each person’s welfare.

Develop a feeling of mutual dependence within the group by stressing that each person depends on the others for survival. Emphasize that the group will not leave the wounded or injured behind—that each member’s responsibility is to make sure the group returns intact. A feeling of mutual dependence fosters high morale and unity. Each member receives support and strength from the others.

Make the decisions no matter what the situation. However, base your decisions on the information and advice of other members of the group—much as admirals make decisions based on input from their staff. Above all else, never appear indecisive.

If situations require you to act immediately, consider the facts and make decisions rapidly. The ability to think on your feet usually determines successful survival.

Survival is a state of mind. Your ability to return to your group or to be rescued depends in a great part on your ability to cope with frustrations. You may become frustrated because you find you are unable to accomplish specific tasks. Perhaps you are hungry, cold, lost, injured, or lack the proper equipment. Being able to improvise equipment, care for your physical needs, and provide first aid for your injuries will help you to control your environment, reactions, and emotions. Don’t be afraid to experiment and use your imagination. A logical experimental approach is the best way to solve most problems.

Remember the following rules:

1. Almost everything is useful—don’t throw away anything.

2. You can be lazier than you would expect, if you just think. The least effort can be the most efficient.

3. Everything you do should be oriented toward rescue.

4. If your surrounding conditions don’t suit your needs, do what you can to change them.

As a member of the armed forces, you always face the chance of being exposed to conditions that can force you into a life-or-death struggle. However, you can remain alive anywhere in the world when you keep your wits. Remember that nature and the elements are neither your friend nor your enemy. By using your wits, you can make them work for you instead of allowing them to work against you.

Survival depends on you. You must be physically fit and know how to locate or collect water. You must know what plants and animals are available for food, how to find or catch them, how to prepare them, and how to recognize those which will harm you. The more you know about the conditions peculiar to the region you are in, including the plant and animal life, the better are your chances for survival. Water

Without water your chances of living are slight, and all the food in the area means little. That is especially true in hot climates where you sweat a lot. Even in cold weather your body needs at least 2 quarts of water each day; a lesser amount reduces your efficiency.

When you can’t find surface water, tap through the earth’s water table for groundwater (rain or melted snow that has filtered through the ground). Getting to the water table and its supply of generally pure water depends on the contour of the land and the characteristics of the soil.

In the desert or arid regions, watch for water indicators. Some signs of water include—

• Plants covering animal trails and the direction in which certain birds fly. By searching in areas toward which these birds fly, you will probably find water.

• Places that are visibly damp, where animals have scratched, or where flies hover indicates recent surface water. Dig in those spots for water.

Leave your handkerchief out on clear nights to collect dew; then squeeze the water into a container. During a heavy dew, you should be able to collect about a pint an hour.

You may find runoff water above the water table. Runoff water includes streams, stagnant pools, and water in bogs. Consider this water contaminated and dangerous even if it is away from human habitation. Boil or treat this water with water purification tablets before you drink it.

If you are unsuccessful in your search for ground or runoff water or if you don’t have time to purify questionable water, a water-yielding plant may be your best bet. You can easily get clear, sweet sap that is pure and chiefly water from many plants. Many plants with fleshy leaves or stems store drinkable water. Try them wherever you find them. Desert plants often have their roots near the surface. Pry these roots out of the ground and cut them into 24- to 36-inch lengths. Remove the bark and suck out the water.

Not all vines yield palatable water, but try any vine you find. Use the following method for tapping a vine. It will work on any species.

1. Cut a deep notch in the vine as high up as you can reach.

2. Then cut the vine off close to the ground and let the water drip into your mouth or a container.

3. When the water ceases to drip, cut another section off the vine.

4. Repeat this procedure until the supply of fluid is exhausted (fig. 15-10).

NOTE

If the liquid is a white sap or very dark in color, it is not drinkable. If the liquid is clear, test it for odor. If it is slightly pink or red in color, that normally indicates the presence of tannic acid, which isn’t harmful. If it has no taste, or does not taste bad, it is a good source of water. Food

It takes little reasoning to recognize that your second requirement is food. That’s especially true during a time of survival when you need every ounce of energy and endurance that you can muster.

People have been known to live for more than a month without food; but unless you are in extremely difficult circumstances, you don’t need to deprive yourself of something to eat. Used properly, nature can provide you with food. Apply the following rules as soon as you realize you are isolated:

1. Inventory your rations and water. Estimate the length of time you will be on your own.

2. Divide your food—two thirds for the first half of your isolation and one third forthe second half.

3. Avoid dry, starchy, and highly flavored foods and meats if you have less than 1 quart of water for each day. Remember eating makes you thirsty. Eat food high in carbohydrates, such as hard candy and fruit bars.

4. Keep strenuous work to a minimum. The less you work, the less food and water you require.

5. Eat regularly if possible—don’t nibble. Plan one good meal each day and cook it if you can. Cooking makes food safer, more digestible, and better tasting. Also, the time you spend cooking will give you a rest period in which you can relax.

6. Always be on the lookout for food. With few exceptions, everything you see that walks, crawls, swims, or grows from the soil is edible. Learn to live off the land. PLANTS.—Experts estimate that about 300,000 classified plants grow on the earth’s surface, including many that grow on mountain tops and ocean floors. Of these, 120,000 varieties are edible. Obviously, you won’t be able to learn about all of these plants from reading this chapter. But if you know what types of food to look for in the area in which you are stranded, can identify them, and know how to prepare them properly, you should find enough to keep you alive. You may even surprise yourself with a delicious meal.

Eat those plants available in the area to provide you with needed energy while you search for meat. You can depend on them to keep you alive if you’re injured, unarmed in enemy territory, or in an area where wildlife is not abundant. Although plant food may not provide a balanced diet, especially in the Arctic where heat-producing qualities of meat are essential, it will sustain you. Many plant foods, like nuts and seeds, will give you enough protein for normal efficiency. In all cases, plants provide energy and calorie-giving carbohydrates.

Most sources of plant foods (fruits, nuts, and berries) have one or more parts that have a lot of food value. For example, certain roots and other underground parts of plants that are rich in starch are excellent sources of food. Some examples are shown on the following page.

ANIMALS.—Foods derived from animals have more food value per pound than those derived from plants. Learning what parts of animals you can eat or use in other ways and learning how to prepare animals for cooking increase your chances of survival. Methods of Cooking and Preserving Foods

Besides making most foods more tasty and digestible, cooking makes them safer to eat by destroying bacteria, toxins, and harmful elements in the food. Your survival chances increase as your knowledge of field survival skills increases. Survival skills include your ability to improvise and to apply the following principles of cooking and preserving the foods you obtain in the field. Harmful Plant and Animal Foods

Although you will encounter relatively few poisonous plants and animals, you should learn to recognize and avoid them.

Some places, such as the Arctic and subarctic regions, have less than a dozen plants that are poisonous. These include the water hemlock (fig. 15-16) and the poisonous mushrooms (figs. 15-17 and 15-18).

The tropics have no greater proportion of poisonous plants than the United States. If you’re in doubt about whether plants are poisonous or nonpoisonous, observe the habits of vegetable-eating animals, such as birds, rodents, monkeys, baboons, and bears. Usually the foods these animals eat are safe for humans. Cook all plant foods because cooking removes plant poisons (except those in poisonous mushrooms).

NOTE

Avoid eating plants that taste bitter. Also avoid eating untested plants that have milky juices.

Don’t let the milky juice contact your skin.

You may eat most animals. However, some, like mollusks, may introduce parasites into your body, especially if you eat them uncooked or when they aren’t fresh. Crustaceans are almost always edible, but they spoil rapidly and may harbor harmful parasites. Be sure to cook the freshwater variety; eat the saltwater variety raw if you desire.

You have no simple way of telling whether a fish is edible. That depends on the place in which they live, their source of food, or even the season of the year. Often fish that are edible in one area of the world are not in another. At first, eat only small portions of any fish. If you feel no ill effects, you can probably continue to eat the fish safely.

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-10.—Extracting water from vines.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-11.—Wild potato.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-12.—Solomon’s seal.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-13.—Water chestnut.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-14.—Nut grass.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-15.—Bullrush.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-16.—Water hemlock.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-17.—Fly agaric.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-18.—Death angel.]

According to the Code of Conduct for Members of the Armed Forces of the United States, it is your duty to evade capture by the enemy. Your job is to get back to your unit. Your survival will depend on your ability to apply the techniques of evasion. No other reason is more important for making evasion techniques part of your basic combat skills.

Evasion means traveling through enemy-held territory without being captured. Falling into the hands of the enemy is an event that no military person wants to experience. However, at some point in your career you may find yourself in a situation where capture is a possibility. You need to know a few basic evasion principles to decrease your chances of winding up as a guest of the enemy.

During World War II and the succeeding actions in Korea and Vietnam, many of our soldiers, Sailors, and marines were able to avoid the enemy and safely return to friendly forces. They were successful because they applied some or all of the guidelines presented in the following paragraphs. You need to learn this information so that you know how to evade the enemy. It could mean the difference between freedom or capture; interrogation; and possibly, inhumane treatment by enemy forces.

Obviously, the most important consideration in evasion is knowing where the enemy is located. If you don’t know the enemy’s location, watch for the following signs. They can tell you the enemy’s location as well as other valuable information.

1. Signs that groups have passed, such as crushed grass, broken branches, footprints, cigarette butts, or other discarded trash, may reveal their identity and size, their direction of travel, and the time they passed through.

2. Workers in fields may indicate absence of the enemy.

3. Apparently normal activities in villages may indicate absence of the enemy.

4. Less obvious conditions may indicate the presence of the enemy, such as the following:

a. The absence of workers in fields is an indication that the enemy is near.

b. The absence of children in a village is an indication that the children have been hidden to protect them from action that may take place.

c. The absence of young people in a village is an indication that the enemy controls the village. Some evasion techniques you may find useful are cover, concealment, and camouflage. To keep yourself from being seen, you may have to hide in bushes or lie flat in shallow ditches using brush as a cover or camouflage. When evading the enemy, remember the following points:

1. Conceal yourself from enemy aircraft and nearby enemy troops.

2. Move quietly; noises carry in fog, fallen snow, heavy foliage, and over rock faces.

3. Maintain personal hygiene to prevent body odor; cover body waste and scraps of food; avoid activities, such as cooking and smoking, that produce smells; such smells can reveal your location.

4. Don’t make sudden, rapid movements that can reveal your location.

5. Select routes for movement that avoid exposed areas and don’t show your silhouette against the skyline. Don’t leave obvious tracks. Crude Direction-Finding Techniques

How do you determine direction without a compass? Nature can help you or nature can fool you. The two best crude sources of direction are the sun and the stars, but you must know how to use them.

These are very crude direction-finding techniques; you may only use them in the Northern Hemisphere. If your ship or aircraft is going to be operating in the Southern Hemisphere, you should learn the techniques for that area of the world. Evasion Travel

The route that you select to travel while trying to evade the enemy depends on your situation, the weather conditions, and the nature of the terrain. Whether you select a ridge, stream, valley, coastline, dense forest, or mountain range to follow, be sure it is the safest, rather than the easiest, way. Experience has proved that the most difficult route is frequently the safest. Travel Tips

Some tips you can use when traveling include the following:

• Be patient, cautious, and avoid overconfidence. An enemy’s approach isn’t a cause for panic. Normally, you have a good chance of remaining unobserved.

• Conserve your strength by avoiding exhaustion. When you have to remain in one place for an extended period, exercise moderately to keep fit.

• Generally, avoid eating uncooked food or drinking unboiled water. Select a hiding place to cook the food and boil the water you will use en route to the next evasion objective.

• Hold on to items of personal clothing and equipment; they serve a useful purpose during evasion. Keep some items that will identify you as a military person, such as your dog tags. If you can’t positively identify yourself as a military person, you may be treated as a spy if captured or be refused assistance by escape organizations or friendly natives.

• Don’t leave or throw away any articles that, if found, could give the enemy a clear picture of your direction of travel. Bury, or otherwise dispose of, the effects of your campsite.

• Practice supply economy. You may have to use the same jacket or pair of shoes throughout the entire evasion trip, which could cover hundreds of cross-country miles during both winter and summer seasons. Build up your food and water supplies. Carefully ration them so that they will last until you can reach an evasion objective or can replenish them. If you have food but no water, don’t eat. Since the digestive processes require water, you will dehydrate faster if you eat.

• Use firearms only in an emergency. Keep them concealed at all times during your evasion unless a situation arises that requires a show of arms.

• Avoid contact with people as long as possible. However, if you can’t proceed on your own because of sickness, lack of food, or other reasons, then, and only then, seek out native assistance. Natives who are sympathetic to the allied cause or members of the underground who operate escape lines for the purpose of returning evaders to allied control may offer assistance. Be wary in contacting natives or accepting their help, regardless of what they claim to be.

• If you’re fortunate enough to travel through an area where an organized escape line exists, the chances are good that a spotter will seek you out. Spotters for resistance or underground organizations are particularly alert when they have reason to believe allied evaders are in their area but so are enemy police and counterintelligence agents. Persons wearing civilian clothing in enemy-held territory are not necessarily civilians. Crucial Phase of Evasion

To establish contact with friendly lines or to cross the border to a neutral country is the most crucial point of evasion. All of your patience, planning, and hardships will be in vain if you aren’t careful when contacting friendly frontline forces. Many personnel attempting to pass through friendly lines have been killed because they didn’t identify themselves properly. Most of these people wouldn’t have been shot if they had been cautious and followed proper procedures. The normal tendency is to throw caution to the wind when in sight offriendly forces. Youmust control this tendency.

Regular patrols or special mission personnel operating behind enemy lines are given the challenge and password of the day as a security measure. Challenges and passwords provide for the identification of the patrol as it approaches a friendly position. In addition, frontline troops are told the time and place where patrols will leave and enter the lines. These conditions exist only if you are able to rejoin your outfit within 24 hours following your separation. After 24 hours, you must follow certain established procedures and hope the frontline troops will also follow them. Usually frontline troops, especially those employed several miles forward of the forward edge of the battle area, shoot first and ask questions later. Contacting these troops is, at the very least, sensitive and a calculated risk. However, in the absence of an opportunity to contact a friendly patrol, contact with frontline troops may be your only alternative. Generally, frontline troops are told to honor the display of a white flag or another white object and to advance the unknown person to be recognized.

Once back in friendly hands, you’ll naturally want to talk about your exploits and will undoubtedly receive countless questions from frontline troops. However, that is the time you should remain silent. If you talk at this point, you may endanger the lives of those who helped you. In addition, you may compromise methods other service personnel might use to evade the enemy and get out safely. Give only information of immediate tactical importance to frontline units. Advise the first officer or petty officer contacted that you are returning to duty from missing in action, prisoner of war, or internment status. Then request to be taken to someone authorized to receive evasion and escape information.

These survival techniques are but a few of the ways you can stay alive and live to return to friendly forces. You can gain an in-depth knowledge of survival, evasion, and escape techniques through special training. The Navy provides this special training at survival, evasion, resistance, and escape (SERE) schools located at strategic locations throughout the world.

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-19.—Estimating distance and average angle of departure.]

[An illustration in the course, not reproduced here: Figure 15-20.—Using prominent landmarks.]

If I am captured I will continue to resist by all means available. I will make every effort to escape and aid others to escape. I will accept neither parole nor special favors from the enemy.

—Code of Conduct, Art. III

What happens if you become a prisoner of war (POW)? After all, it is possible. Isolation, fear, and injury all work in favor of the enemy to increase your chances of capture in spite of a determined effort on your part to evade. The surrender of your arms, however, does not mean you forfeit your responsibilities as a member of the American armed forces. The armed forces Code of Conduct directs that you begin planning your escape the minute you are taken prisoner.

Escape is tough; making it work is even tougher. It demands courage, cunning, and much planning in seeking ways out, determining what routes to follow, and locating friends. Above all, it demands physical stamina under the worst conditions imaginable. Experience has proven that “model” camps with regular rations and considerate treatment are the exception. But no matter what extremes you encounter as a POW, try to keep yourself physically able and sufficiently equipped to escape as soon as possible.

If captured, try to make your escape early. You may never be in any better physical condition to escape than at the moment you are captured. Prison rations are barely enough to keep you alive; they certainly won’t supply you with a reserve of energy. The physical treatment, lack of medical care, and insufficient rations of prison life soon have effects such as physical weakness; night blindness; and loss of coordination, reasoning power, and morale.

There are other reasons for making your escape early after your capture. Friendly artillery fire or air strikes occurring during that time may increase your chances of getting away. The first guards you will have are not as well trained in handling prisoners as those farther back from the front lines. Some of the line guards may even be walking wounded who are distracted by their own condition. In addition, you know something about the terrain where you are captured, and you know the approximate location of friendly units. Several days later and many miles away, you may be in strange territory. An escape from a prison camp is much more difficult and requires more detailed planning. It must be organized and supported as any other military operation. The method you should use to escape depends on your particular situation. The only general rules are to make an early escape and to escape when the enemy’s attention is distracted. Save, Add to, Take Care of (S-A-T)

Since the conditions in various POW camps differ, it is impossible to provide a specific escape or survival plan for each situation. What you need is a guide to help you plan to make the best of what you have. One such guide is to remember the word S-A-T–SAVE, ADD TO, TAKE CARE OF Maintaining Your Health Good physical health is essential to survival under any circumstances. It is especially important in a POW camp where living conditions are crowded and food and shelter are lacking. That means you must use every device possible to keep yourself well.

CODE OF CONDUCT

ARTICLE I

I am an American, fighting in the forces which guard my country and our way of life. I am prepared to give my life in their defense.

ARTICLE II

I will never surrender of my own free will. If in command I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have the means to resist.

ARTICLE III

If I am captured I will continue to resist by all means available. I will make every effort to escape and aid others toescape. Iwill accept neither parole nor special favors from the enemy.

ARTICLE IV

If I become a prisoner of war, I will keep faith with my fellow prisoners. I will give no information or take part in any action which might be harmful to my comrades. If I am senior, I will take command. If not, I will obey the lawful orders of those appointed over me and will back them up in every way.

ARTICLE V

When questioned, should I become a prisoner of war, I am required to give name, rank, service number and date of birth. I will evade answering further questions to the utmost of my ability. I will make no oral or written statements disloyal to my country and its allies or harmful to their cause.

ARTICLE VI

I will never forget that I am an American, fighting for freedom, responsible for my actions, and dedicated to the principles which made my country free. I will trust in my God and in the United States of America.

Soap and water provide a basic preventive medicine; so keep clean. If water is scarce, collect rainwater, use dew, or simply rub yourself daily with a cloth or your bare hands. Pay attention to areas on your body that are likely to develop rash and fungus infection–your crotch, your scalp, and between your toes.

Keeping clean also applies to your clothing. Use soap and water when you can spare it. Hang your clothes in the sun to air if soap and water are not available. Examine the seams of your clothing and the hairy portions on your body frequently for lice and their eggs. Disease-infected lice can kill. A possible way to get laundry service, or even a bath, is to tell your guard that you are infested with lice, whether or not your complaint is true. The prison authorities, fearing that lice on prisoners may cause an outbreak of louse-borne disease among the civilian and guard population, might provide this service.

If you become ill, report your condition to the camp authorities. The chance that you will receive aid is worth the try. After You Escape

Once you escape, you may have trouble contacting friendly units even when you know where they are. Approach the problem as you would if you were a member of a lost patrol. Time your movements so that you pass through the enemy forward areas at night and arrive between the enemy and friendly units at dawn. A good plan is to find a ditch or shell hole where you have cover from both friendly and enemy fire. Attract the attention of the friendly forces by waving a white cloth, shouting, exposing or laying out a panel, or some other method. In doing so, you alert friendly forces who are prepared to accept any small group that appears willing to regain contact. When you alert friendly forces, they are not as likely to shoot you on sight.

Q1. Give the meaning of the letters in the key word S-U-R-V-I-V-A-L. S U R V I V A L

Q2. If in a group, what action(s) makes(s) for the best chance of survival?

Q3. List the sources of drinking water. a. b. c. d.

Q4. True or False. Food derived from animals has more food value per pound that food from plants.

Q5. List plants that you should not eat. a. b. c.

Q6. List some techniques that are useful to evade the enemy. a. b. c.

Q7. What does the armed forces Code of Conduct direct you to do?

You will probably spend the majority of your naval career aboard ship. Hopefully you will never fall or be washed overboard or have to abandon ship.

The U.S. Navy operates in all parts of the world from the tropics to polar regions. Each region has its own special survival problems. You may encounter the extreme cold of the polar regions or the heat and humidity of a tropical jungle. Your survival in these places will depend on your ability to take care of yourself. Knowing how to combat hypothermia or heat exhaustion will greatly increase your chances for survival.

Although it could happen, hopefully you will never find yourself stranded in enemy-held territory. To be captured by an enemy force is one of the worst situations you could face. Being properly prepared to make an escape and return to your unit is not only your duty, but it is what every POW thinks about. Knowing how to make that escape work is even more difficult. Knowing what the local environment has to offer in food and water supplies will help you survive during your escape. Maintaining the proper state of mind will greatly increase your chances of making a successful escape.

A1. When aboard ship, you should know escape routes so you won’t be trapped or cut off in case of an emergency or if you must abandon ship.

A2. False. You should never dive into the water to abandon ship. Use a ladder, cargo net, line, or fire hose.

A3. The swimming classification that gives you the best chance for survival if you have to abandon ship is the First Class Swimmer.

A4. If you have to jump from a ship into burning water, you should take a deep breath, cover your nose and mouth with one hand and your eyes with the other, and swim under water as far as possible.

A5. You can use trousers/slacks, sea bag, and pieces of wood to stay afloat.

A6. The two types of life preservers used by the Navy are the—

a. Inherently buoyant type

b. Inflatable type

A7. When you have custody of your life preserver, you should inspect it once each month.

A8. The contents of survival kits carried by inflatable lifeboats include—

a. Food rations

b. Sea marker dye

c. Flashlight

d. Batteries

e. Signal mirror

f. Whistle

g. First-aid kit

h. Distress signal kit

i. Containers of fresh water

A9. The one essential requirement for survival is drinking water.

A10. The food ration carried by lifeboats is based on one packet of food per person per day.

A11. Some of the dangers you might face by exposure include—

a. Sunburn

b. Hypothermia

c. Frostbite

d. Immersion foot

A1. The meaning of the letters in the key word S-U-R-V-I-V-A-L are— S ize up the situation U ndue haste makes waste R emember where you are V anquish fear and panic I mprovise V alue living A ct like the natives L earn basic skills

A2. In a group, working together is the best chance of survival.

A3. Some sources of drinking water include—

a. Dig to the water table

b. Collect dew during the night

c. Runoff water

d. A water-yielding plant

A4. True. Food derived from animals has more food value per pound than food from plants.

A5. Plants that you should not eat include—

A. Water hemlock

B. Fly agaric

C. Poisonous mushrooms

A6. Some techniques that are useful to evade the enemy include—

a. Cover

b. Concealment

c. Camouflage

A7. The armed forces Code of Conduct directs you to make every effort to escape.

1. If time permits during abandon-ship preparation, a message announced over the 1MC will give which of the following information?

1. Water temperature

2. Sea and wind conditions

3. Bearing and distance to the nearest land

4. All of the above

2. If you have to go over the side and the ships’ propellers are turning, you should leave from what point on the ship?

1. The windward side, if possible

2. The lee side, if possible

3. From the bow

4. From the stern

3. Personnel have the greatest chance for survival in the water if they meet which of the following swimmer requirements?

1. First class

2. Second class

3. Third class

4. If you have to swim through flames, which of the following is a procedure to follow?

1. Use your life preserver as a raft

2. Keep your face above the surface of the water as much as possible

3. Both 1 and 2 above

4. Swim underwater until you are clear of the oil

5. If you must abandon ship into oily water that is not burning, which of the following precautions should you take?

1. Use your life preserver as a raft

2. Keep your face above the surface of the water as much as possible

3. Both 1 and 2 above

4. Swim underwater until you are clear of the oil

6. You can use which of the following items to help you stay afloat?

1. Seabags

2. Pillow cases

3. Mattress covers

4. All of the above

7. The Navy uses a maximum of how many types of life preservers?

1. One

2. Two

3. Three

4. Four

8. Which of the following benefits does the collar on the vest-type life preserver provide?

1. Additional insulation against chill in cold water

2. Additional buoyancy to keep the head upright

3. A place to store survival equipment

4. A place to attach a retrieving line

9. The wooden toggle and line of an inflatable life preserver are used to

1. permit easy removal of the preserver

2. make the preserver fit snugly around your body

3. attach yourself to a life raft or another person

4. provide a means for retrieving you out of the water

10. When using a pin-on, battery-operated light on a life preserver, you should replace the battery at what minimum interval?

1. 18 months

2. 12 months

3. 3 months

4. 6 months

11. You may launder the fibrous glass pads in addition to the outer cover of the inherently buoyant preserver.

1. True

2. False

12. In addition to inspecting your inflatable life preserver each time you wear it, you should also inspect it for air leaks at what minimum interval?

1. Daily

2. Weekly

3. Monthly

4. Quarterly

13. The survival kits in large lifeboats are designed to sustain 15 to 20 people on regular rations for what maximum number of days?

1. 20

2. 15

3. 10

4. 5

14. You can identify the red flare end of a Mk 13 Mod 0 distress signal kit in the dark by which of the following indicators?

1. A metal pull ring

2. Beadlike projections

3. The absence of beadlike projections

4. The absence of a metal pull ring

15. Under good weather conditions, the dye marker will retain some color for what maximum length of time?

1. 1 hour

2. 2 hours

3. 3 hours

4. 4 hours

16. In a lifeboat, what piece of survival equipment is provided to assist you in filling containers with freshwater?

1. Rain catcher tube

2. Rain cistern

3. Rain bucket

4. Funnel

17. In a lifeboat, continuous exposure to the elements will not harm which of the following pieces of survival or signal equipment?

1. Sponges

2. Knives

3. Flashlights

4. Signal mirrors

18. In a lifeboat, you may survive on as little as how much water a day?

1. 10 ounces

2. 8 ounces

3. 6 ounces

19. People are known to live for 4 weeks or longer in a survival situation if a sufficient amount of water is available.

1. True

2. False

20. Which of the following forms of sea life or birds should NEVER be eaten?

1. Sharks

2. Jellyfish

3. Seabirds

4. Sea turtles

21. Which of the following sea birds is/are edible?

1. Albatrosses

2. Gannets

3. Terns

4. All of the above

22. At what minimum water temperature are you at risk for a serious condition called hypothermia?

1. 75°F

2. 80°F

3. 85°F

4. 95°F

23. What means should you use to treat frostbitten hands and fingers?

1. Rub them

2. Exercise them

3. Place them in cold water

4. Place them in contact with a warm part of your body

24. Assume that you have just fallen overboard. What is the most important survival technique for you to remember?

1. Remain calm and try to stay afloat

2. Swim after the ship and call for help

3. Remove your shoes and other heavy clothing

4. Keep moving your arms and feet for protection from sharks

25. Helicopters use a maximum of how many basic devices for recovering personnel in the water?

1. One

2. Two

3. Three

4. Four

26. If you fall overboard and sharks are in the area, you should take which of the following actions?

1. Swim away from the area

2. Assume the jellyfish position and try to remain motionless

3. Float on your back and use as little arm and leg movement as possible

4. Tread water and make wide sweeping movements with your arms to splash water

27. In a group survival situation, good leadership will lessen the effects of which of the following emotional states?

1. Panic

2. Confusion

3. Disorganization

4. All of the above

28. At least how many quarts of water are required each day to maintain your efficiency?

1. 1

2. 2

3. 3

4. 4

29. Liquids obtained from vines are undrinkable if they have which of the following characteristics?

1. White sap

2. Very dark in color

3. Both 1 and 2 above

4. Slightly pink color

30. In a survival situation with less than 1 quart of water per day, you should avoid eating what type of food?

1. High-carbohydrate

2. Highly flavored

3. Excessively sweetened

4. High-protein

31. Under survival conditions, you would obtain the most food value from which of the following sources?

1. Nuts

2. Tubers

3. Insects

4. Animal flesh

32. To kill any parasites scavenger birds such as buzzards and vultures might carry, you should boil the birds for what minimum length of time?

1. 5 minutes

2. 10 minutes

3. 15 minutes

4. 20 minutes

33. When selecting a route for evasion travel, you should always choose the easiest route.

1. True

2. False

34. Which of the following sources is best for determining directions under survival conditions?

1. The position of the stars and the sun

2. The growth of moss on trees and rocks

3. The direction of movement of birds and animals

4. The direction of water flow in streams and rivers

35. During evasion, if you can no longer proceed on your own because of illness, which of the following actions should you take?

1. Seek help from friendly natives

2. Display a white flag or other white object

3. Surrender to enemy troops by walking toward them with raised arms

4. Select a hiding place and stay there until you are well enough to travel

36. After evading the enemy and returning to an area with friendly forces, you should take which of the following actions?

1. Fire your weapon three times and give your name

2. Arouse their attention by shouting at them

3. Display a white flag or other white object

4. Try to get through their lines at night

37. You should give friendly frontline troops which, if any, of the following information about your evasion experiences?

1. All information they request

2. Immediate tactical information

3. A description of the methods you used during evasion

4. None of the above

38. If you are placed in a POW camp, which of the following measures is the most important part of any plan for your escape and survival?

1. Taking care of what you have

2. Adding to what you have

3. Saving everything you can get, no matter how useless it may seem

4. All of the above

39. After you escape, when is the best time to arrive at a location between friendly and enemy units?

1. At noon

2. At dusk

3. At dawn

4. At midnight

This subpart applies to each vessel to which this part applies, except:

(a) Vessels used for noncommercial use; and

(b) Vessels leased, rented, or chartered to another for the latter's noncommercial use.

Amendment history: [CGD 72-172R, 38 FR 8117, Mar. 28, 1973, as amended by USCG-2012-0919, 79 FR 53630, Sept. 10, 2014]

As used in this subpart:

(a) Approval series means the first six digits of a number assigned by the Coast Guard to approved equipment. Where approval is based on a subpart of subchapter Q of this chapter, the approval series corresponds to the number of the subpart. A listing of current and formerly approved equipment and materials may be found on the Internet at: http://cgmix.uscg.mil/equipment. Each OCMI may be contacted for information concerning approved equipment.

(b) Approved means approved under subchapter Q of this chapter.

(c) Use means operate, navigate, or employ.

Amendment history: [USCG-2012-0919, 79 FR 53630, Sept. 10, 2014]

(a) No person may operate a vessel to which this subpart applies unless it meets the requirements of this subpart.

(b)(1) Each vessel not carrying passengers for hire and less than 40 feet in length must have on board at least one wearable personal flotation device (PFD) approved under subchapter Q of this chapter, and of a suitable size for each person on board.

(2) Each vessel carrying passengers for hire, and each vessel not carrying passengers for hire and 40 feet in length or longer, must have at least one PFD approved under approval series 160.055, 160.155, 160.176, or 160.255, and of a suitable size for each person on board.

(3) In addition to the equipment required by paragraphs (b)(1) and (b)(2) of this section, each vessel 26 feet in length or longer, except for a barge to which this subpart applies, must have at least one approved lifebuoy, and each uninspected passenger vessel of at least 100 gross tons must have at least three approved lifebuoys. Lifebuoys must be approved under approval series 160.050 or 160.150, except that a lifebuoy approved under former 46 CFR 160.009 prior to May 9, 1979 (see 46 CFR chapter I, revised as of October 1, 1979), may be used as long as it is in good and serviceable condition.

(c)(1) Each vessel not carrying passengers for hire may substitute an immersion suit approved under 46 CFR 160.171 for a wearable PFD required under paragraphs (b)(1) or (b)(2) of this section.

(2) On each vessel, regardless of length and regardless of whether carrying passengers for hire, a commercial hybrid PFD approved under former approval series 160.077 prior to January 6, 2025, may be substituted for a PFD approved under approval series 160.055, 160.155, 160.176, or 160.255 if it is in good and serviceable condition and—

(i) Used in accordance with the conditions marked on the PFD and in the owner's manual; and

(ii) Labeled for use on commercial vessels.

Amendment history: [USCG-2012-0919, 79 FR 53630, Sept. 10, 2014, as amended by USCG-2022-0120, 89 FR 97387, Dec. 6, 2024]

The lifesaving equipment required by this subpart must be legibly marked as specified in subchapter Q of this chapter.

(a) The lifesaving equipment designed to be worn required in § 25.25-5(b) and (c) must be readily accessible.

(b) Lifesaving equipment designed to be thrown required in § 25.25-5(b) must be immediately available.

(c) For a barge to which this subpart applies, the wearable lifesaving equipment specified in § 25.25-5 need not be stored on board the barge if the barge's operator stores it elsewhere, and ensures that each individual dons the equipment or a work vest approved under 46 CFR 160.053 before boarding the barge and keeps it on for as long as the individual remains on board and at risk of falling overboard.

Amendment history: [CGD 72-172R, 38 FR 8117, Mar. 28, 1973, as amended by CGD 82-075a, 49 FR 4483, Feb. 7, 1984; USCG-2012-0919, 79 FR 53631, Sept. 10, 2014]

The lifesaving equipment required by this subpart must be in serviceable condition.

(a) This section applies to vessels described in § 25.25-1 that engage in ocean, coastwise, or Great Lakes voyages.

(b) Each immersion suit carried in accordance with § 25.25-5(e), each life preserver, each marine buoyant device intended to be worn, and each buoyant vest must have a personal flotation device light that is approved under subpart 161.012 of this chapter.

(c) Each personal flotation device light required by this section must be securely attached to the front shoulder area of the immersion suit, life preserver, or other personal flotation device.

(d) If a personal flotation device light has a non-replaceable power source, the light must be replaced on or before the expiration date of the power source. If the light has a replaceable power source, the power source must be replaced on or before its expiration date and the light must be replaced when it is no longer serviceable.

Amendment history: [44 FR 38783, July 2, 1979, as amended by CGD 82-075a, 49 FR 4483, Feb. 7, 1984; CGD 97-057, 62 FR 51042, Sept. 30, 1997]

(a) Each life preserver, each marine buoyant device intended to be worn, and each buoyant vest carried on a vessel must have Type I retroreflective material that is approved under subpart 164.018 of this chapter.

(b) Each item required to have retroreflective material must have at least 200 sq. cm (31 sq. in.) of material attached to its front side, at least 200 sq. cm of material on its back side, and, if the item is reversible, at least 200 sq. cm of material on each of its reversible sides. The material attached on each side of the item must be divided equally between the upper quadrants of the side, and the material in each quadrant must be attached as closely as possible to the shoulder area of the item.

Amendment history: [CGD 76-028, 44 FR 38783, July 2, 1979, as amended by CGD 82-075a, 49 FR 4483, Feb. 7, 1984]

(a) Each uninspected passenger vessel of at least 100 gross tons must have adequate survival craft with enough capacity for all persons aboard and must meet one of the following requirements:

(1) An inflatable liferaft must be approved under 46 CFR part 160, subparts 160.051 or 160.151, and be equipped with an applicable equipment pack or be approved by another standard specified by the Commandant. Inflatable liferafts must be serviced at a servicing facility approved under 46 CFR part 160, subpart 160.151.

(2) An inflatable buoyant apparatus must be approved under 46 CFR part 160, subpart 160.010 or under another standard specified by the Commandant. An inflatable buoyant apparatus must be serviced at a servicing facility approved under 46 CFR part 160, subpart 160.151.

(b) If the vessel carries a small boat or boats, the capacity of the small boat or boat(s) may be counted toward the survival craft capacity required by this part. Such small boat or boat(s) must meet the requirements for safe loading and floatation in 33 CFR part 183.

Amendment history: [USCG-1999-5040, 67 FR 34776, May 15, 2002]

In an emergency that may require leaving a vessel, survival could depend upon how quickly an observer is able to don his or her immersion suit. The suits greatly increase safety in the water, but can be difficult to put on quickly.

[An illustration in the document, not reproduced here: Photograph: an observer seated on the floor working her legs into a red immersion suit.]

Regular practice should reduce donning time from minutes to seconds. Here are some tips and steps to keep in mind:

• Practice donning the suit while lying on the deck. In an emergency, vessel movement or list may prevent donning while standing.
• If the situation permits, wear or bring extra warm clothing.
• Start by working your legs into the suit.
• Next, move to a kneeling position and place your non-dominant arm into a sleeve.
• Then, use your dominant arm to pull the hood over your head, and then place it into the other sleeve. Once both arms are in the sleeves of the suit, you can adjust the hood again as needed.
• Finally, holding the zipper with one hand, pull the lanyard with your other hand to close it. Arching backwards can help ensure complete zipping. Secure the flap over your face and mouth.
• Wait until you are in the water to inflate the air bladder, to prevent injury to yourself or damage to the suit. If practical, ease or lower yourself into the water—jumping should only be a last resort.

[An illustration in the document, not reproduced here: Photograph: the same observer kneeling, pulling the suit up toward her shoulders.]

[An illustration in the document, not reproduced here: Photograph: a man in an immersion suit, arms in the sleeves, pulling the hood over his head.]